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Hiotographic 

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23  WEST  MAIN  STREET 

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CIHM/ICMH 

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Technical  and  Bibliographic  Notes/Notes  techniques  et  bibliographiques 


The  Institute  has  attempted  to  obtain  the  best 
original  copy  available  for  filming.  Features  of  this 
copy  which  may  be  bibliographically  unique, 
which  may  alter  any  of  the  images  in  the 
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L'Institut  a  microfilm^  le  meilleur  exemplaire 
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de  cet  exemplaire  qui  sont  peut-dtre  uniques  6u 
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une  image  reproduite,  ou  qui  peuvent  exiger  una 
modification  dans  la  mithode  normale  de  filmage 
sont  indiqu6s  ci-dessous. 


n 

D 


Coloured  covers/ 
Couverture  de  couleur 

Covers  damaged/ 
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Pages  de  couleur 

□    Pages  damaged/ 
Pages  endommag6es 

□    Pages  restored  and/oi  laminated/ 
Pages  restauries  et/ou  pellicul6es 


D 


Cover  title  missing/ 

Le  titre  de  couverture  manque 


v/ 


Pages  discoloured,  stained  or  foxed/ 
Pages  d6color6es,  tachet^es  ou  piqu^es 


D 


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Pages  d^tachees 


D 

D 
D 


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Encre  de  couleur  (i.e.  autre  que  bleue  ou  noire) 

Coloured  plates  and/or  illustrations/ 
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Bound  with  other  material/ 
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Transparence 


□    Quality  of  print  varies/ 
Qualite  in^gale  de  I'impression 

□    Includes  supplementary  material/ 
Comprend  du  materiel  supplementaire 


D 


D 


Tight  binding  may  cause  shadows  or  distortion 
along  interior  margin/ 

La  reliure  serree  peut  causer  de  I'ombre  ou  de  la 
distortion  le  long  de  la  marge  intdrieure 

Blank  leaves  added  during  restoration  may 
appear  within  the  text.  Whenever  possible,  these 
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lors  d'une  restauration  apparaissent  dans  le  texte, 
mais,  lorsque  cela  6tait  possible,  ces  pages  n'ont 
pas  6t6  filmdes. 


D 
D 


Only  edition  available/ 
Seule  Edition  disponible 

Pages  wholly  or  partially  obscured  by  errata 
slips,  tissues,  etc.,  have  been  refilmed  to 
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Les  pages  totalement  ou  partiellement 
obscurcies  par  un  feuillet  d'errata,  une  pelure, 
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obtenir  la  meilleure  image  possible. 


n 


Additional  comments:/ 
Commentaires  suppldmentaires; 


This  item  is  filmed  at  the  reduction  ratio  checked  below/ 

Ce  document  est  filmd  au  taux  de  reduction  indiqud  ci-dessous. 

lOX  14X  18X  22X 


J 


12X 


16X 


20X 


26X 


30X 


3 


24X 


28X 


32X 


Th«  copy  filmad  h«r«  has  b—t%  r«prociuc«ci  thank* 
to  tha  ganarosity  of: 

Library  Divition 

Provincial  Archival  of  British  Columbia 


L'axamplaira  filmi  fut  raproduit  grica  k  la 
g4n4roait*  da: 

Library  Division 

Provincial  Archival  of  British  Columbia 


Tha  imagas  appaaring  hara  ara  tha  baat  quality 
posalbla  contldaring  tha  condition  and  laglbillty 
of  tha  original  copy  and  in  kaaping  with  tha 
filming  contract  spacificationa. 


Laa  imagas  suivantaa  ont  4tA  raproduitas  avac  la 
plus  grand  soin,  compta  tanu  da  la  condition  at 
da  la  nattat*  da  l'axamplaira  film*,  at  an 
conformiti  avac  las  condltionw  du  contrat  da 
filmaga. 


Original  copias  in  printad  papar  covars  ara  fllmad 
baginning  with  tha  front  covar  and  anding  on 
tha  last  paga  with  a  printad  or  illustratad  impras- 
sion,  or  tha  back  covai  whan  appropriata.  All 
othar  original  copias  ara  fllmad  baginning  on  tha 
first  paga  with  a  printad  or  illustratad  impras- 
sion.  and  andir^g  on  tha  last  paga  with  a  printad 
or  illustratad  imprassion. 


Las  axamplairas  originaux  dont  la  couvartura  an 
papiar  ast  imprimia  aont  filmAs  an  commandant 
par  la  pramiar  plat  at  an  tarminant  soit  par  la 
darnlAra  paga  qui  comporta  una  ampralnta 
d'Imprassion  ou  d'illustration,  soit  par  la  sacond 
plat,  salon  la  cas.  Tous  las  autras  axamplairas 
originaux  sont  fiimis  an  commandant  par  la 
pramiAra  paga  qui  comporta  una  ampralnta 
d'Imprassion  ou  d'illustration  at  an  tarminant  par 
la  darniira  paga  qui  comporta  una  taila 
ampralnta. 


Tha  last  racordad  frama  on  aach  microficha 
shall  contain  tha  symbol  ^^>  (maaning  "CON- 
TINUED"), or  tha  symbol  V  (maaning  "END"), 
whichavar  anplias. 


Un  das  symbolas  suivants  apparaitra  sur  la 
darniAra  Imaga  da  chaqua  microficha,  sa'on  la 
cas:  la  symbola  — ►  signifia  "A  SUIVRE  ",  la 
symbols  V  signifia  "FIN". 


Maps,  platas.  charts,  ate  may  ba  filmad  at 
diffarant  raduction  ratios.  Thosa  too  larga  to  ba 
antiraly  includad  in  ona  axposura  are  filmad 
baginning  in  tha  uppar  laft  hand  corner,  left  to 
right  and  top  to  bottom,  as  many  frames  as 
required.  The  following  diagrams  illustrate  the 
method: 


Les  cartes,  planches,  tablaeux,  etc.,  peuvent  Atre 
filmAs  A  des  taux  da  reduction  diffirants. 
Lorsque  le  document  est  trop  grand  pour  Atre 
reproduit  en  un  seul  cliche,  il  est  film*  A  partir 
de  i'angle  sup6rieur  gauche,  da  gauche  A  droite, 
et  de  haut  en  bas,  en  prenant  la  nombre 
d'images  nAcessaire.  Les  diagrammes  suivants 
illustrant  la  mAthode. 


1 

2 

3 

t 

i 

9 

4 

5 

6 

1 

I 


ON  THE 


Si^ 


PHYSICAL    FEATURES 


OF  THE 


CENTRAL  PART  OF  BRITISH  NOliTH  AMERICA, 


AND  ON  ITS 


CAPABILITIES  FOR  SETTLEMENT. 


BY 


JAMES  HECTOR,  M.D.,  F.G.S.,  &c. 


(From  the  Edinburtjh  New  Philosophical  Journ<u   New  Series,  for  October  1801.) 


EDINBURGH: 
PRINTED  BY  NEILL  AND  COMPANY. 

MDCCGLXr. 


/ 


Physical  Features  of  the  Central  Part  of  British  North 
America,  with  Special  Reference  to  its  Botanical  Physi- 
ognomy.     By  James  Hector,  M.D.,  F.G.S.,  &c.* 

The  following  paper  is  intended  as  a  sb  oh  of  the  botani- 
cal results  of  a  Government  expedition  w  ch  was  sent  out 
in  the  spring  of  1857  to  explore  the  British  territories  lying 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  northern  boundary  line  of  the 
United  States,  and  stretching  westward  from  Lake  Superior 
across  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  expedition  was  placed 
under  the  command  of  Captain  Palliser,  who  had  previously 
travelled  among  the  Indians  in  the  district  of  the  Upper 
Missouri  and  Yellowstone  Rivers.  Ilis  party  consisted  of 
Lieutenant,  now  Captain  Blackiston,  R.A.,  who  had  charge 
of  the  maguctical  observations  ;  Mr  Sullivan,  as  secretary 
and  assistant-astronomer  to  Captain  Palliser ;  M.  Bourgeau, 
a  botanical  collector  whose  name  must  be  familiar  to  the 
members  of  this  Society  who  have  had  occasion  to  consult 
the  Herbarium  ;  and  the  writer  of  this  paper,  who  filled  the 
post  of  surgeon  and  naturalist.  The  expedition  was  in  the 
field  for  three  years,  and  in  that  time  examined  and  mapped 
a  region  embracing  33°  of  longitude,  and  in  some  places  5° 
of  latitude. 

Physical  Cliaracters  of  the  Area  explored. — Commencing 
at  Lake  Superior,  the  route  of  the  expedition  for  the  first  600 
miles  to  Lake  Winipeg  crossed  over  a  spur  which  diverges 
to  the  south-west  from  an  axis  of  crystalline  rocks  that  runs 
from  Canada  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  a  north-west  direction, 
and  known  as  the  '*  Intermediate  Primitive  Belt"  of  Richard- 
son, or  the  "  Laurentian  Axis"  of  Logan.  This  belt  of  rocky 
country  nowhere  acquires  a  mountainous  character,  but  is 
throughout  extremely  rugged  and  traversed  by  innumerable 
watercourses,  and  by  long  narrow  lakes.  The  greatest  alti- 
tude passed  over  in  this  portion  of  the  journey  was  1000 
feet  above  Lake  Superior,  or  1600  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
The  inequalities  of  surface,  and  the  diversity  in  the  nature 
and  amount  of  soil,  has  given  a  greater  degree  of  com- 
plexity to  the  flora  of  this  district  than  we  might  expect 
from  its  other  physical  conditions.  The  winter  experienced 
in  this  region  is  severe,  but  steady.     From  the  commencc- 

*  Read  before  the  Botanical  Society  of  Edinburgh,  13th  June  1861. 


32753 


o 


.  /"*. »  V   • 


VIC 


jC^RlA,  B.  0. 


2         Dr  James  Hector  on  the  Physical  Features  of  the 

ment  of  November  till  May  the  whole  country  is  ice-boimd, 
so  that  the  vegetation  is  perfectly  dormant.  The  spring  is 
very  lingering,  owing  to  the  great  extent  of  surface  occu- 
pied by  water,  and  the  neighbourhood  of  the  largo  lakes  on 
the  one  hand,  and  of  Hudson  Bay  on  the  other;  the  slow 
melting  of  the  ice  which  accumulates  on  tliesc  sheets  of 
water  keeping  the  temi)eraturo  depressed  till  far  on  in  the 
season.  Thus,  in  crossing  Lake  Superior,  on  the  9th  of 
June,  the  expedition  encountered  much  cold  weather,  and 
got  entangled  in  the  ice-floes  that  were,  oven  so  late  in  the 
season,  drifting  about  the  lake.  The  summer  temperature  is 
high,  and,  for  the  same  reason  that  renders  the  spring  late, 
the  autumn  is  prolonged  beyond  its  normal  extent,  the  in- 
fluence of  the  large  internal  masses  of  water  not  having  the 
effect  of  producing  an  equalised  climate  like  that  of  a  sea- 
coast,  but  merely  prolonging  tlie  force  exorcised  by  the 
half-yearly  extremes  of  heat  and  cold. 

To  the  west  of  the  Laurentian  Axis  commences  the  region 
of  plains  that  extends  to  the  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  north  and  south  throughout  the  whole  cen- 
tral district  of  the  North  American  continent.  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  Lake  Winipeg  the  primitive  rocks  are 
overlaid  by  nearly  horizontal  strata  of  Silurian  and  Devonian 
age,  consisting  of  limestones  sometimes  containing  magnesia 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  soil  derived  from  their  decompo- 
sition must  be  of  inferior  quality.  Excepting  along  the 
margins  of  the  group  of  lakes  that  lie  close  to  the  axis,  out- 
crops of  these  limestones  are,  however,  rarely  met  with,  the 
floor  of  the  plateau  being  almost  everywhere  concealed  by 
superficial  deposits,  consisting  of  sands,  gravels,  and  marls, 
the  bulk  of  which  have  been  derived  by  denudation  from 
the  cretaceous  strata  that  at  one  time  must  have  overlaid 
the  area  now  occupied  by  the  chain  of  lakes  that  extends 
from  Lake  Winipeg  to  Great  Bear  Lake.  A  succession  of 
steps,  composed  of  these  superficial  deposits,  and  covered 
with  a  great  profusion  of  erratic  blocks,  raises  the  level  as 
we  proceed  westward,  until,  at  an  altitude  of  1600  to  2000 
feet,  the  finely  assorted  and  well-mixed  soils  of  the  drift 
deposits  cease,  and  the  surface  of  the  plain  is  occupied  by 
strata  of  the  age  of  the  chalk,  but  formed  of  plastic  and 


Central  Pari  of  British  North  A  tnttica. 


8 


I 


f 


sandy  clays,  iiiucli  iinpregnateil  \vitli  sulphates,  and  yielding 
little  or  no  soil  that  can  support  vegetation.  In  some  locali- 
ties sandstones  prevail,  whicli  disintegrate  with  facility,  and 
give  rise  to  immense  wastes  of  blown  sand,  that  are  continu- 
ally, though  slowly,  travelling  before  the  prevailing  winds. 

The  whole  prairie-slope  of  the  continent  is  divided  into 
two  regions  by  a  low  watershed,  wliich  traverses  it  from  east 
to  w^est,  nearly  following  the  political  boundary,  which  is 
the  49th  parallel  of  latitude,  and  throwing  off  the  drainage 
south  to  the  Gulf  of  ]\rexico,  and  north  to  the  Arctic  Ocean 
and  Hudson  Bay.  This  watershed  is  very  indistinctly 
marked,  and  has  been  formed  entirely  ])y  denudation  of 
the  soft  strata,  being  quite  unconnected  with  any  disturb- 
ance of  the  rocky  framework  of  the  basin.  The  prairies 
are  traversed  by  several  large  rivers,  but,  excepting  the 
sudden  carrying  off  of  the  surface  water  when  the  snows 
melt  in  spring,  these  rivers  can  hardly  be  said  to  drain  the 
country  through  which  they  flow,  as  their  waters  are  derived 
throughout  the  greater  i)art  of  the  year  from  the  Kocky 
Mountains ;  and  the  excess  of  evaporation  over  tlie  rain-fall 
is  shown  by  the  drying  up  in  summer  of  those  streams  tliat 
do  not  rise  in  the  mountains  or  from  the  swampy  region 
along  their  eastern  base. 

There  is  one  physical  feature,  which  has  an  important 
bearing  on  the  question  of  botanical  distribution,  the  elfect 
of  which  will  be  alluded  to  in  an  after  part  of  this  paper. 
This  is  the  manner  in  which  the  plains  are  traversed  by 
deej)  and  narrow  valleys,  with  abrupt  slopes,  and  cut  into 
the  otherwise  level,  or  only  slightly  undulating,  surface  of 
the  country.  Those  troughlike  valleys,  by  favouring  variety 
in  the  exposure,  soil,  and  drainage,  have  afforded  continuous 
lines  for  the  migration  and  diffusion  of  plants  through  tracts 
of  country  where  the  prevailing  conditions  are  quite  unsuited 
for  their  support. 

The  plains  rise  gently  as  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  ap- 
proached, and  at  their  western  limit  have  an  altitude  of  4000 
feet  above  the  sea  level.  With  only  a  very  narrow  interven- 
ing belt  of  hilly  country,  the  mountains  rise  almost  abruptly 
from  the  plains,  and  present  lofty  precipices  that  frown  like 
battlements  over  the  level  country  to  the  eastward. 

a2 


4        Dr  James  Hector  on  the  Physical  Features  of  the 

When  travelling  in  any  of  the  transverse  valleys,  by  which 
the  chain  is  cut  through  almost  to  the  prairie  level,  the  moun- 
tains are  seen  to  be  composed  of  successive  ranges  formed 
by  the  escarpments  of  highly  disturbed  limestones  and 
quartzites  of  palaeozoic  age.* 

The  average  altitude  of  the  highest  part  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  is  12,000  feet ;  but  they  never  rise  into  marked 
peaks,  and  their  clifF-like  structure  still  further  detracts  fiom 
the  grandeur  of  their  appearance.  The  forest  extends  in 
altitude  to  7000  feet ;  and  as  some  of  the  passes  are  much 
under  this  elevation,  the  chain  cannot  bo  considered  as  a 
direct  bar  to  the  passage  of  the  more  striking  kinds  of  vege- 
tation. 

Meteorological  observations  were  obtained  for  the  winter 
and  spring  seasons  of  both  1857-58  and  1858-59,  at  Fort  Ed- 
monton, which  is  situated  in  the  plain  country,  and  about  100 
miles  east  of  the  Bocky  Mountains,  in  Lat.  53°  32'  N.,  Long. 
113°  20'  W.,  and  at  an  altitude  above  the  sea  of  2000  feet. 

In  order  to  show  more  exactly  the  nature  of  the  climate 
at  these  seasons  of  the  year,  the  following  abstract  of  the 
thermometric  observations  is  given : — 

I.  F7'om  Daily  Observations,  excluding  Maxima  and  Minima. 


No.  of 

Highest. 

Lowest. 

Range. 

Mean. 

Obser- 
vations. 

o 

o 

o 

0 

1858.  January,    .     . 

45- 

-19-5 

64-5 

11-2 

62 

...     February, 

55-5 

-415 

97- 

93 

61 

...     March, 

5Q' 

5- 

51- 

349 

93 

...     April,  .     . 

76- 

24- 

52- 

451 

90 

. . .     October,    . 

53- 

16- 

37- 

38-5 

49 

. . .     November, 

47-5 

-19' 

66-5 

27-1 

85 

. . .     December, 

29-8 

-27-5 

68- 

-   2-9 

93 

1859.  January,    . 

42- 

-26- 

68- 

12- 

93 

. . .     February, 

42- 

-37- 

79- 

5-1 

84 

. . .     March, 

44-5 

-    2-5 

47- 

24-9 

91 

. . .     April,  .     .     . 

65- 

11- 

54- 

32-5 

90 

...     May,    .     . 

64 

37- 

27- 

508 

22 

Mean  for  January,  February,  March,  anc 

I  April  1858,     . 

25-12 

Do.                     do.                     do. 

1859,     . 

1862 



*  A  sketch  of  the  geology  of  this  country  will  be  found  in  the  "  Geological 
Journal,"  November  1861. 


Central  Part  of  British  North  America. 
II.  From  Daily  Maxima  and  3linima  ObHcrvations. 


Max 

[nia. 

Min 

ma. 

Mean 

TomperB- 

ture. 

Highest. 

Mnan. 

Lowest. 

Mean. 

o 

0 

0 

c 

0 

1858.  January,    .     . 

-22  5 

-   3-3 

February, 

. . . 

-41- 

-    32 

...     March,      .     . 

... 

... 

15 

22- 

. . . 

...     April,  .     .     . 

... 

... 

11-5 

279 

. . . 

. . .     October,    . 

... 

... 

18-5 

26-2 

. . . 

...     November,     . 

52- 

34- 

-    2 

189 

26-45 

. , ,     December, 

37-5 

64 

-25- 

-14- 

-76 

1859.  January,    .     . 

4-}- 

201 

-35-7 

-    1- 

955 

February, 

435 

13G 

-38- 

-11  1 

125 

...     March,       .     . 

44'5 

347 

-    6- 

11  4 

2305 

...     April,  .     .     . 

67- 

4r8 

00 

204 

311 

...     May,    .     .     . 

67- 

58-6 

31- 

37-2 

47-9 

Mean  of  Minima  for  t 

ran.,  Feb. 

,  March,  i 

ind  April 

1858,   . 

2r-7 

Do. 

do. 

do. 

1859,   . 

9-8 

The  climate  of  the  prairies,  and  of  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  a  district  having  a  mean  latitude  of  53°  N., 
diil'ers  in  many  respects  from  that  of  the  Eastern  Lake  District, 
the  mean  latitude  of  which  is  about  48°  N.,  although  they 
possess  nearly  the  same  average  temperature  for  the  year. 
Thus,  while  the  Canadian  and  Eastern  climate  is  expressed  by 
a  low  but  steady  winter  curve  of  temperature,  which  is  coun- 
teracted in  its  effect  upon  the  vegetation  by  a  correspondingly 
high  summer  curve,  the  manner  in  which  the  more  northern 
an  J  equally  continental  climate  of  the  Western  Saskatchewan 
acquires  the  same  average,  is  by  rapidly  succeeding  irregu- 
larities and  variations  of  temperature,  according  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  dominant  wind  for  the  time.  The  influence  ex- 
erted by  those  winds  during  the  winter  months  was  very 
clearly  observed  at  Edmonton  during  the  first  part  of  the 
year  1858.  They  may  be  divided  into  three  groups  at  this 
place  : — 1.  The  clear  winds,  that  in  winter  bring  the  intense 
extremes  of  cold,  and  which  blow  from  the  north-west.  In 
summer,  this  direction  is  exactly  reversed,  when  it  becomes 
a  clear,  hot,  and  dry  wind.  Ixjii  may  be  considered  as  the 
proper  continental  current,  and  is  the  wind  of  fine  steady 
weather.     It  often  only  affects  the  lower  stratum  of  the 


6         I)r  James  irectur  on  the  l*liyfiinil  Fcafurcs  of  flic 


y 


r 


atmosplioro,  the  clouds  being  soon  to  pnHs  right  arroHs  it  in 
ujipcr  air.  1'Ijis  wind  must  not  bo  too  rigidly  dellnod  by  its 
moro  direction,  as  it  often  blows  from  unonuilous  (luarters, 
while  its  character  ron»ains  the  same,  being  quite  nubordi- 
natc  in  form  to  either  of  the  next  two  gmups,  whi(;h  are 
both  stormy  winds. 

2.  This  group  includes  all  the  winds  that  generally  blow 
from  between  north  and  east,  and  wiiich  in  winter  bring 
snow,  and  in  summer  cold  fogs. 

3.  The  south  and  south-wost  winds,  that,  blowing  from 
the  I'acific  Ocean  through  and  over  the  llocky  Mountains, 
always  bring  cloud :3,  warmth,  and  sometimes  even  rain 
during  the  winter. 

The  struggle  among  these  three  climatic  agencies  gives 
rise  to  the  following  succession  of  phenomena.  A  few  days 
of  fine,  steady,  though  peihap.^  "  itensely  cold  weather,  with 
the  wind  from  the  north-west,  is  followed  by  a  slight  rise  in 
the  temperature,  caused  by  the  north-east  wind  having  piled 
a  canopy  of  cloud  over  the  lower  stratum,  and  so  preventing 
radiation.  This  is  effected  gradually,  every  morning  the  sky 
being  more  and  raore  overcast,  and  clearing  later  in  each 
successive  day,  nntil  at  length  it  remains  cloudy  till  evening, 
when  a  cutting  north-east  wind  commences,  that  soon  in- 
creases to  a  storm,  followed  by  snow.  This  lasts  for  two  or 
three  days,  till  the  snow  begins  to  fall  more  gently,  and  with 
the  temperature  rising,  at  length  the  clouds  break,  when 
the  upper  stratum  of  air  is  seen  moving  rapidly  from  the 
south-west,  carry hig  light  fleecy  clouds  against  a  clear  sky. 
Generally,  in  the  course  of  the  following  night,  the  south- 
west wind  affects  the  lowest  stratum  of  air,  and  increases  in 
violence,  sometimes  ranging  rapidly  through  many  points  of 
the  compass,  showing  that  it  takes  the  form  of  a  cyclone, 
and  at  the  same  time  bringing  a  high  temperature  and  dense 
clouds  discharging  rain.  One  of  these  storms,  for  instance, 
passed  over  the  Saskatchewan  Plains  on  the  3d  of  January 
1858  ;  and  at  Edmonton  the  minimum  temperature  for  that 
•day  and  night  was  36°,  while  the  maximum  for  the  next 
twenty-four  hours  was  only  10°.  Again,  on  the  24th  of  the 
same  month,  at  the  close  of  another  of  these  storms,  the 


! 

I 


Central  I'nrf  of  lirUiah  North  America.  7 

tt'iiiperaturc  loll  IVoiii  157°  tit  4  p.m.  to  — 13"- .")  before  midiiiglit, 
or  u  (liircreiicc  of  .OU^'G  in  eight  hours. 

After  the  ntorin  from  the  south-west  has  passed,  the  light 
north-wester  generally  sets  in  irregularly,  and  the  tempera- 
ture falls  in  the  course  of  a  few  days  to  an  extreme,  during 
whieh  there  is  eahn,  followed  hy  the  haze  and  the  overhang- 
ing cloud  from  the  north-east  as  hefuri!. 

Along  tlie  eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  those 
cliunges  are  even  more  distinctly  marked  than  in  the  longi- 
tude of  Edmonton,  and  the  effect  they  have  in  reducing  the 
amount  of  snow  is  very  remarkable,  so  that  there  is  a  narrosv 
tract  close  to  the  mountains  where  there  is  never  more  than 
a  few  inches  of  snow  on  the  ground,  and  the  rivers,  when 
rapid,  remain  open  during  the  winter.  In  consequence  of 
this,  a  few  ducks  arc  found  i-  Unger  throughout  the  whole 
season  in  the  mountains,  wliile  irom  the  Plain  country,  in 
latitudes  much  further  S(>utl»,  they  are  necessarily  absent 
from  October  till  IMay.  Torty  miles  cast  of  the  mountains 
the  snow-fall  is  much  increascl,  but  during  the  depth  of 
winter  rarely  exceeds  two  feet  in  dei)th.  From  the  })rairies 
the  snow  evaporates  rapidly,  and  excepting  in  hollows  where 
it  drifts,  it  never  accumulates  ;  but  in  the  woods,  where  i)ro- 
tected,  it  often  reaches  the  depth  of  three  to  four  feet  towards 
spring. 

During  the  steady  cold  of  the  winter  the  ground  freezes 
to  a  considerable  depth,  especially  in  seasons  when  there  is  a 
sujall  fail  of  snow.  Thus  at  Edmonton  the  limit  of  the 
frozen  soil  was  found  on  the  5tli  of  March  1858  to  be  at  the 
depth  of  uearl}'  seven  feet ;  and  in  the  same  spot  in  the  year 
following,  on  the  IGtli  of  ]\Iarch,  it  was  marked  at  six  feet. 
Regular  observations  were  taken  during  both  winters,  and 
also  when  travelling  in  the  plains,  for  the  purpose  of  ascer- 
taining the  temperature  of  the  soil  at  the  depth  of  two  or  three 
feet,  according  to  the  method  suggested  by  Dr  Hooker.  The 
following  table  gives  the  means  of  these  observations: — 


8 


I 


III 

m 


I 


I 


Dr  James  Hector  on  the  Physical  Features  of  the 
1857-8,  Fort  Carlton. 


Month. 

Mean  Temp. 

Mean  at 

Mean  at 

of  Air. 

Two  Feet. 

Three  Feet. 

November,     . 

o 

173 

35-8 

36-6 

December, 

8-9 

30-4 

32-8 

January, 

0-0 

23-4 

29-3 

February*. 

7-4 

183 

24-3 

March, 

■ 

26  3 

24-6 

25  3 

April,    . 

35-8 

303 

302 

May,     . 

450 

338 

31-6 

June,t  . 

54-9 

38-6 

33-8 

1858  9,  Fort  Edmonton. 

November,!  . 

26-45 

35-7 

• 

December, 

76 

23-4 

ID 

January, 

9  55 

20-8 

s 

February, 

125 

176 

m 

March, 

23-0 

252 

April,    . 

31-1 

30-3 

O 

May,§    . 

47-9 

321 

(The  thermometers  were  sunk  in  brass  tubes  attached  to  a 
light  wooden  rod,  and  had  the  bulbs  protected  with  flannel, 
to  preserve  them  from  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere  while 
they  were  removed  for  examination.) 

At  Fort  Carlton  observations  were  also  made  by  M.  Bour- 
geau  almost  daily,  in  order  to  determine  the  temperature 
within  the  trunks  of  large  trees.  For  this  purpose  ther- 
mometers were  placed  obliquely  into  the  heart  of  a  Populus 
haUamifera  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  of  an  Ahies  alba  of 
the  same  size.  These  observations  only  served  to  show  that, 
as  might  be  expected,  the  temperature  of  the  trees  accords 
much  more  closely  with  the  mean  temperature  of  the  atmo- 
sphere than  does  that  of  the  soil,  even  at  the  depth  of  only 
two  feet ;  and  further,  that  there  is  no  marked  difference  at 
very  low  temperatures  between  the  resisting  power  of  ever- 
green and  deciduous  trees.  The  means  of  these  observations 
were  as  follows :  |] — 

*  First  8cvente(!n  days  only.  t  First  eight  days  only. 

X  From  9th  to  30th.  §  First  eight  days  only. 

tl  Some  of  these  observations  have  been  printed  iu  the  Proceedings  of  tlie 
liinnean  Societv,  1869. 


Central  Part  of  British  North  America. 


I 


m 


Month. 

Air. 

Poplar. 

Spruco. 

1857. 

December, 

o 

8-9 

9(37 

13-63 

1858. 

January, 

0-0 

0- 

0-8 

■  •  • 

February, 

7-4 

711 

396 

>  •  • 

March,     . 

263 

2927 

2093 

•  •  * 

April, 

35-8 

35-51 

•  •• 

So  long  as  the  vegetation  remains  dormant  during  the  win- 
ter season,  the  sudden  changes  which  have  been  described, 
however  great,  can  have  little  iuiiuence  upon  plant  life;  but 
when  the  mean  temperature  for  the  twenty-four  hours  rises 
above  the  freezing-point,  and  the  powerful  sun  of  each  day, 
with  the  abundant  moisture  derived  from  the  melting  of  the 
snows,  stimulate  the  ascent  of  the  sap  and  the  germination  of 
seeds,  these  sudden  alternations  must  have  a  very  baneful 
effect,  and  exclude  from  the  flora  of  the  country  many  plants 
that  it  would  otherwise  be  quite  fitted  to  sustain.  From  the 
middle  of  March  until  the  third  week  of  April  is  the  usual 
duration  of  this  critical  period  ;  but  as  late  as  the  middle  of 
May  serious  damage  is  frequently  done  to  the  vegetation  by 
sudden  variations  of  the  temperature.  This  is  without  tak- 
ing into  consideration  the  night  frosts,  which  are  of  common 
occurrence  almost  throughout  the  entire  summer,  and  which, 
of  course,  must  completely  prevent  the  growth  of  many  kinds 
of  plants. 

During  the  summer  months,  even  in  the  true  prairie  coun- 
try, rain,  with  cloudy  weather,  is  much  more  frequent  than 
might  be  expected  from  tbp  position  which  the  district  occu- 
pies in  the  centre  of  a  contment,  and  barred  from  the  influence 
of  the  moist  south-west  winds  by  a  continuous  chain  of  moun- 
tains. On  the  prairies  immediately  to  the  west  of  the  Ked 
Eiver  Settlement,  as  far  as  Turtle  Mount,  thunder-storms, 
with  heavy  rains,  are  of  almost  daily  occurrence  during  the 
months  of  July  and  August.  The  temperature  in  that  dis 
triot  was  often  very  high,  the  thermometer  several  times 
reaching  95°  in  the  shade. 

On  the  higher  plains  to  the  west,  between  Carlton  and  the 
llocky  Mountains,  which  range   in  altitude  from  2000  to 


10      Dr  James  Hector  on  the  Physical  Features  of  the 


m 


3000  feet,  thunder-storms  are  more  rare,  yet  a  good  deal  of 
rain  falls.  During  the  latter  half  of  June  1858,  tliere  were 
nine  days  of  rain  and  cloudy  weather  to  six  of  fine  clear  sky. 
The  mean  temperature  for  the  same  period  was  58°"8,  from 
observations  taken  at  sunrise,  2  p.m.,  and  sunset,  the  highest 
recorded  being  72°,  and  the  lowest  ¥'f.  This  excludes  the 
minimum  night  temperature,  however,  which  often  fell 
within  a  few  degrees  of  the  freezing  point.  The  mean  degree 
of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere  was  0'64,  saturation  being  100. 
During  the  month  of  July  in  the  same  year  there  were  tw^elve 
days  of  cloudy  sky  and  rain.  The  mean  temperature  was 
59°'5,  the  extremes  recorded  being  70"  and  40°,  w'ith  the 
degree  of  humidity  0-59,  or  rather  less  than  in  June, 

In  August,  in  the  district  along  the  base  of  the  mountains, 
having  an  altitude  of  nearly  4000  feet,  the  mean  tempera- 
ture was  54",  and  the  extremes  recorded  as  occurring  between 
sunrise  and  sunset  were  79°  and  40°'r).  Almost  every  night, 
however,  we  found  that  ice  formed  in  the  kettles,  and  that 
the  ground  was  covered  with  hoar-frost. 

The  radiation,  as  might  be  expected,  is  very  great  during 
the  summer  nights  in  the  northern  prairies,  so  that  when 
the  sky  is  clear  the  quantity  of  dew  that  forms  is  great  in 
proportion  to  the  degree  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.  It 
is  owing  to  this — combined  wdth  the  sharp  frosts  in  August 
and  September,  which  arrest  the  sap  before  the  grasses  have 
fully  flow^ered  and  faded — tliat  the  rich  pasture  along  the 
North  Saskatchewan  Plains  is  preserved  green  and  juicy  until 
the  snow"  falls,  after  which  the  hard  steady  w- inter  keeps  it 
fresh  and  nutritious  as  artificial  Ijay  until  the  return  of 
spring.  Along  the  South  Saskatchewan  the  country  is  arid, 
and  without  such  pasture  ;  but  in  travelling  in  that  region 
no  marked  difference  w^as  observed  in  the  frequency  of  rain- 
clouds  during  the  summer  than  when  further  to  the  north  ; 
and  that  a  considcraljle  amount  of  moisture  passes  over  these 
plains  is  proved  b}'^  the  marked  increase  in  the  vigour  of  the 
vegetation  on  the  high  and  isolated  patches  of  table-land 
which  are  scattered  over  the  arid  country.  It  is  probable 
that  the  jn-evalence  of  a  hard  clay  soil,  formed  from  the 
cretaceous  strata,  which  bakes  under  the  heat  of  the  sun  from 


Central  Part  of  British  North  America. 


11 


1 


f 


tlie  want  of  moisture  in  early  spring,  is  the  iinmediate  cause 
of  this  barrenness.  The  little  snow  which  fails  on  the  open 
plain  is  at  once  swept  off  b}'  the  wind  and  evaiwrated  during 
tlie  winter,  so  that  in  spring  the  clear  powerful  sun  at  once 
bakes  the  soil  and  prevents  the  germination  of  seeds. 

The  weather  experienced  in  the  Eocky  Mountains  was  very 
irregular,  with  a  great  daily  range  of  temperature.  Thus, 
in  the  end  of  August  tlie  thermometer  during  the  night  was 
as  low  as  14°  at  an  altitude  of  6000  feet,  and  almost  every 
night  it  fell  considerably  below  the  freezing  point,  although 
during  the  day  it  often  reached  70°  to  80°.  In  the  valleys  of 
the  eastern  slope  the  amount  of  rain-fall  is  very  small  com- 
pared to  that  on  the  first  part  of  the  descent  to  the  west,  when 
fine  weather  is  the  rare  exception  even  in  September.  This 
only  applies,  how^ever,  to  the  mountains  north  of  the  olst 
parallel  of  latitude,  south  of  which,  for  some  reason,  the 
rain-fall  on  the  western  slope  in  the  valley  of  the  Kootani 
River  must  be  much  less,  judging  both  from  the  experience 
of  two  seasons  and  from  the  nature  of  the  vegetation,  which 
is  of  the  arid  type. 

On  the  eastern  slope,  throughout  the  entire  summer,  there 
are  occasional  falls  of  snow  at  altitudes  above  5000  feet ;  but 
snow  never  lies  deeply  at  any  season.  It  is  only  on  the  various 
**  heights  of  land"  which  have  an  altitude  of  from  6000  to 
7000  feet,  and  for  the  first  few  miles  of  the  western  descent, 
that  snow  appears  to  accumulate  in  the  valleys  in  large  quan- 
tities— sometimes  to  the  depth  of  16  to  20  feet.  The  higher 
valleys  of  the  central  mass  of  the  mountains  are  occupied  by 
glaciers,  some  of  which  are  of  very  considerable  size,  even 
when  resting  on  the  eastern  slope.  They  are,  however,  fed 
principally  by  the  snows  that  accumulate  on  the  western  slope, 
so  that  when  ranges  equallyhigh  are  cut  off  from  the  influence 
of  the  western  moisture,  no  glaciers  have  been  formed.  This 
exactly  conforms  towdiat  has  been  observed  by  Dr  Hooker  and 
others  regarding  the  diminished  altitude  of  the  snow-line  as 
the  nearest  seaboard  to  a  range  of  mountains  is  approached. 

In  the  latitude  of  49°  the  country  to  the  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  is  very  rugged  and  mountainous  for  th'  whole  dis- 
tance to  the  Pacific  coast.     South  of  that  parallel,  however, 


12      Dr  Jarnos  Hector  on  the  Physical  Features  of  the 


\m 


|l!;^i 


there  are  great  expanses  of  desert  plain,  owing  to  the  influeuco 
of  the  Cascade  Range  of  mountains,  which  forms  ahnost  an  un- 
broken wall  4000  feet  in  height,  running  parallel  to  the  coast, 
and  cutting  off  the  moisture  from  the  interior.  In  descending 
to  the  westward,  therefore,  from  the  Rocky  Mountains,  into 
the  depression  that  intervenes  between  them  and  the  Cascade 
Range,  a  belt  of  moist  climate  is  met  with  where  the  winds 
that  have  passed  over  the  coast-range  first  strike  on  the 
higher  and  interior  range.  Then  follows  a  belt  of  dry  climate, 
increasing  in  aridity  as  we  proceed  westward,  and  get  more 
completely  sheltered  by  the  coast  range,  but  on  crossing 
which  we  at  once  get  into  the  humid  climate  of  the  Pacific 
coast,  with  its  wonderful  development  of  forest  growth. 

Having  thus  briefly  sketched  the  leading  physical  peculi- 
arities wliich  influence  the  character  of  the  vegetation  in 
the  region  treated  of,  I  shall  next  give  a  short  outline  of 
the  manner  in  which  authors  have  divided  British  North 
America  into  Botanical  areas,  and  endeavour  to  show  the 
position  which  the  country  explored  by  the  Expedition 
occupies  among  them,  as  indicated  by  the  collections  of 
M.  Bourgeau  and  by  the  physiognomy  of  its  vegetation. 

The  collections  made  by  M.  Bourgeau  were  forwarded  to 
England  from  time  to  time,  and  were  duly  received  by  Sir 
William  Hooker  at  the  Royal  Botanic  Garden  at  Kew.  They 
consisted — 1st,  Of  plant  specimens  prepared  for  preservation 
in  the  Herbarium  ;  2c?,  Seeds  and  roots  of  plants  for  culture, 
many  of  which  have  been  successfully  raised  at  Kew  ;  3c?, 
Specimens  of  the  vegetable  products  used  in  the  country  by 
the  Indians,  and  which  are  preserved  in  the  Kew  Museum 
of  Economic  Botany.  M.  Bourgeau  also  made  collections 
of  insects  and  shelled  mollusca,  all  of  which  were  forwarded 
to  the  British  Museum. 

Of  the  dried  j)lants,  there  were  in  general  twelve  specimens 
of  each  species  sent  home,  and  the  duplicate  sets  have  been 
distributed  to  the  various  puliic  herbaria  in  Europe  and 
America,  including  that  of  our  own  university,  each  specimen 
having  been  named  before  its  issue  from  Kew  by  Mr  Black, 
curator  of  the  Herbarium  there,  who  prepared  the  list  under 
the  superintendence  of  Dr  Hooker. 


f 


Central  Part  of  British  North  America. 


13 


The  collection  of  flowering  plants  and  ferns  consists  of 

819  species,  belonging  to  349  genera  and  92  orders,  which  is 

more  than  two-fifths  of  the  total  flora  of  British  North 

America.     In  the  list,  there  are  62  species  returned  as 

undetermined,  some  of  which  will  most  likely  prove  to  be 

new.     In  the  relative  order  of  their  importance,  from  a 

number  of  species,  the  principal  families  stand  thus : — 

Compositac  form  |th  of  the  whole. 
Cyperacerc 


Gramineae 

Leguminosa8 

Rosaceae 

Raimnculaceae 

Cruciferae 

Salicaceae 


TVth 
iPffth 


Scrophulariaceae  ^'^th 
The  following  analysis  of  the  collection  will  give  a  fur- 
ther idea  of  the  general  nature  of  the  flora  of  the  country 
from  which  it  was  made. 


Orders. 

No.  of 
Genera. 

No.  of 
Species. 

Of  which 
undeter- 
mined. 

In  British  North 
America. 

Genera.* 

Species.* 

Ranunculafleae,   . 

11 

32 

... 

IG 

72 

Menispermaceae, 
Berberideae, 

1 
1 

1 

1 

... 

1 
3 

1 
5 

Sarraceniacea3,    . 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Nyraphaeaceae,    . 
PapaveracesB, 

1 
1 

1 

1 

... 

3 
3 

4 
3 

Fumariaceae, 

1 

2 

•  •  • 

4 

9 

Cruciferw, 

14 

31 

7 

25 

104 

Capparideae, 
CistineaB,   . 

2 
1 

2 
1 

... 

2 
3 

2 
5 

Viulaceae    . 

1 

8 

■  >  ■ 

1 

18 

Polygalaceao, 
DroseraceaB, 

1 

1 

3 
1 

... 

1 
2 

7 
9 

Lineae, 

1 

2 

i  • . 

1 

3 

Caryophylleae, 
Paronychieae, 

6 
1 

17 

1 

3 

12 
2 

66 
2 

*  These  columns  are  given  for  comparison  from  Sir  John  Richardson's 
"  Arctic  Searching  Expedition,  1851,"  vol.  ii.  p.  322.  It  is  hardly  necessary 
to  remark,  that  in  this  and  the  other  works  of  this  veteran  explorer  and  philo- 
sopher will  be  found  generalizations  respecting  the  climate  and  vegetation 
of  British  North  America,  which  the  results  of  this  expedition  have  only  served 
to  establish  and  apply  for  a  very  small  area  of  the  region  which  be  treated  of . 


14      Dr  James  Hector  on  the  Physical  Features  of  the 


Onlcra. 


Malvaceae, 

Tiliaceop, 

HypcricinesB, 

Acerinea;, 

Oxalideaj, 

Geraniaceop, 

Balsaiiiiiiea), 

Rhamneaj, 

Anacardiacejc, 

Lcguminosaj, 

Rosaceas, 

Halorageoe, 

Onagrariaj, 

Cucurbitaceae, 

Cactacea), 

Loasaceae, 

Grossulariaceae, 

Saxifragacete, 

Crassulaceaj, 

Urabelliferae, 

Araliaceae, 

Loranthaceae, 

Corneae,    . 

Caprifoliaceae, 

Rubiaceae, 

Compositae, 

Valerianaceae, 

CampanulaceaB, 

Lobeliaceae, 

Vaccineae, 

Ericacea?, 

Pyrolacea^ 

Primulaceae, 

Oleaceae, 

Gentianacenp, 

ApocyneiV, 

Asclepiadere, 

Polemoniaceai, 

Hydrophyllese, 

Convolvulacea3, 

Solanere,  . 

Boraginacese, 

Labiata3, 

Verbenacena, 

Scrophularineae, 

Lentibulariero,  . 


No.  of 
Genera. 


1 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
2 
1 

13 

16 
3 
3 
1 
1 
1 
1 
4 
1 

10 
1 
1 
1 
6 
2 

40 
1 
1 
1 
2 
7 
2 
7 
1 
2 
1 
2 
3 
1 
1 
2 
8 
9 
1 
7 
2 


No.  of 
Species. 


1 
1 
1 
3 
1 
4 
2 
2 
2 

50 

48 
4 

13 
1 
4 
1 
7 

15 
2 

14 
3 
1 
4 

13 
5 
112 
1 
2 
1 
5 
9 
4 

10 
1 
6 
2 
5 
5 
1 
1 
5 

17 
9 
1 

24 
2 


Of  which 

umletor- 

inined. 


7 
7 

2 

4 


8 


2 

2 


In  British  North 

America. 

Genera. 

Species. 

3 

5 

2 

2 

1 

8 

2 

8 

1 

5 

2 

6 

1 

2 

2 

6 

1 

6 

26 

98 

24 

124 

4 

10 

6 

28 

2 

2 

1 

2 

1 

3 

1 

16 

8 

56 

2 

3 

28 

39 

3 

7 

1 

1 

1 

7 

7 

24 

5 

15 

70 

321 

2 

6 

1 

8 

1 

6 

1 

16 

10 

40 

5 

16 

8 

23 

1 

3 

8 

34 

1 

4 

1 

11 

3 

13 

2 

5 

3 

6 

5 

8 

5 

27 

24 

40 

2 

7 

20 

74 

2 

8 

Central  Part  of  British  North  America. 


15 


Orders. 

No.  of 
Genera. 

No.  of 
Species. 

Of  which 

uiuleter- 
mineil. 

In  Brit'.sh  North 
Auerica. 

Genera. 

Bpecies. 

Plantagine.'y,     . 
Nyctaginene, 
Polygonaceic,     . 
Amaranthacero, 

1 
2 
4 
1 

2 

2 

14 

1 

... 

1 
2 
5 
1 

5 
3 

34 
6 

Chenopodett, 
SantalaceiP, 

8 
1 

17 
2 

1 

•  •  • 

8 
1 

20 
2 

Elaeagnea), 
Aristolochiaceiii, 

2 
1 

3 
1 

2 
1 

3 
1 

Euphorbiaceas  . 

1 

1 

2 

8 

Cupuliferrc, 
Salicaceio, 

3 

2 

4 
31 

5 
2 

15 

48 

Cannabinacero, . 

1 

1 

2 

2 

Urticacefc, 

3 

3 

4 

8 

Betulaceiv, 

2 

4 

2 

11 

Conifera', 

5 

13 

7 

20 

Typbacesie, 

2 

3 

2 

4 

Aroidero, 

3 

3 

...     \         6 

9 

Naiadaceiv, 

2 

4 

...      !         4 

14 

Alisraaceiv, 

3 

5 

2 

3 

Hydrocharideae, 
Orchideie, 

1 
8 

1 
13 

2 
16 

2 
54 

Irideae, 

2 

2 

2 

8 

Liliaceae, 

11 

20 

16 

45 

Melanthaceoe,    . 

4 

4 

1 

5 

5 

Juncacere, 

2 

13 

3 

2 

23 

Commelynacea?, 

Cyperace.ic, 

Gramineffi, 

1 

5 

33 

1 

68 
62 

4 

0 

8 

49 

0 
218 
153 

Filices,     . 

13 

17 

* . . 

17 

47 

Lycopodiaceaa, . 

1 

4 

... 

2 

12 

Summary  of  above. 

1.  In  M.  Bourgoau's  collection, 

819  species, 

349  genera. 

92  orders. 

2.  Of  the  same  orders  there  have  been  enumerated  by  Richardson,  as 
occurring  in  British  and  Russian  North  America — 

471  genera ; 
2155  species — ■ 
the  total  flora  which  he  enumerates ;  comprising 

118  orders ; 
509  genera ; 
2270  species  ; 
viz.,  1725  dicotyledons  and  554  monocotyledons. 


ir.     Dr  Jamos^ Hector  on  the  Physical  Features  of  the 


n 


i 


si 


II 

m 


f{ 


i 


^1 


In  trcatiii.c:  of  tlie  distribution  of  plants  in  British  North 
America,  Sir  John  Hichardson'"  has  divided  the  region  into 
three  zones,  in  the  following  manner : — 

1.  The  Polar  Zone,  which  embraces  the  land  lying  detached 
from  the  continent,  and  north  of  Lat.  73°.  The  flora  of  this 
zone  consists  of  plants  belonging  to  21  natural  orders,  among 
which  the  Criiciferce,  Ch'aminea^,  and  Saxifragacece,  are  the 
principal. 

2.  The  Arctic  Zone,  whichextendsfrom  the  above-mentioned 
limit  south  to  the  Arctic  Circle,  excepting  towards  the  eastern 
side  of  the  continent,  when,  owing  to  the  configuration  of  the 
land  and  the  abnormal  depression  of  the  temperature,  the 
characteristic  Arctic  flora  passes  for  10°  south  of  that  limit. 
An  outlier  from  this  flora  also  passes  the  south  along  the 
ridge  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  number  of  natural 
families  is  in  the  Arctic  Zone  increased  to  67,  and  the  most 
marked  feature  is  the  predominance  of  Cyperacece. 

3.  The  Woodland  Zone,  which  stretches  across  the  con- 
tinent obliquely,  conforming  to  the  divergence  of  the  Arctic 
Zone  from  its  proper  latitudes,  and  thus  lying  between  45° 
and  55°  of  latitude  on  the  Atlantic  Coast,  but  between  50° 
and  60°  of  latitude  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

This  zone  he  divides  into  three  districts — 
1.  The  Eastern  Woodland  district  of  Canadian  Forest, 
which  extends  westward  as  far  as  Lake  Winipeg. 
The  Western  Woodland  district,  from  the  Pacific  coast 

to  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  Central  or  Plain  district,  Wing  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains. 
The  number  of  natural  orders  represented  in  this  zone  is 
about  117,  being  an  increase  of  50  over  the  number  in  the 
Arctic  Zone. 

As  M.  Bourgeau  returned  to  England  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  third  season's  explorations  without  crossing  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  his  collection  only  consisted  of  the  plants 
gathered  from  betw^een  Lake  Superior  and  the  eastern  slope 
of  that  range.  It  thus  represents  a  portion  of  Richardson's 
Eastern  district,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Prairie  district  that 


2. 


3. 


*  Arctic  Searching  Expedition  1851,  vol.  ii.,  App.  No.  3. 


Central  Part  of  British,  North  America. 


17 


lies  within  the  British  territory,  and 
the  Rocky  Mountains 


the  alpine  and  subal- 


I 


pine  district 

Until  a  thorough  and  critical  analysis  of  the  whole  flora  is 
accomplished,  we  cannot,  however,  expect  mucli  light  to  he 
thrown  by  the  method  of  tabulation  on  the  natural  affinities 
which  the  floras  of  the  different  areas  bear  to  one  another  ; 
and  till  then,  it  is  therefore  safer,  in  adapting  provisional 
geographical  groups,  to  rely  more  on  the  nature  of  the  forest 
growth  and  such  evident  characters  as  catch  the  eye  of  the 
traveller.  Such  an  analysis  has  however  been  recently  effected 
for  the  flora  of  the  northern  part  of  the  continent  in  a  highly 
philosophical  memoir  by  Dr  Hooker  ("  Outlines  of  the  Distri- 
bution of  Arctic  Plants,"  read  before  the  Lin.  Soc.  of  Lon- 
don, June  21,  1861).  His  work  has  yielded  most  important 
results,  modifying  the  generally  received  opinion  of  the  uni- 
formity of  the  Arctic  flora  throughout  every  longitude ;  and  by 
tracing  its  distribution,  he  has  found  strong  grounds  for  sup- 
porting the  theory  first  promulgated  by  the  late  Edward 
ForbcSjOf  a  southern  migration  of  northern  types  having  taken 
place  during  the  cold  of  the  glacial  epoch,  and  also  of  Dar- 
win's view  of  the  high  antiquity  of  the  Scandinavian  flora. 

With  regard  to  the  northern  flora  of  the  American  conti- 
nent, Hooker  has  modified  the  areas  described  by  Richardson, 
in  so  far  as  not  distinguishing  between  ?iXi  Arctic  and  a  Polar 
flora,  but  merely  dividing  the  whole  region  into  an  "  Arctic 
West  American  Flora,"  which  extends  from  Behring's  Straits 
to  M'Kenzie's  River,  and  an  "Arctic  East  American  Flora," 
which  extends  from  that  river  to  Baffin's  Bay,  but  excludes 
Greenland,  the  Flora  of  which  he  shows  to  belong  to  a  Euro- 
pean and  not  to  an  American  type.* 

Bearing  in  view  the  leading  physical  features  of  the  coun- 
try which  have  already  been  alluded  to,  and  to  the  general 
botanical  divisions  that  have  been  quoted,  I  shall  now  follow 
the  course  of  the  expedition,  and  briefly  sketch  tlie  features  of 
the  vegetation  observea  along  the  route. 

The  canoe  route  from  Lake  Superior  to  Lake  Winipeg, 
by  which  the  spur  of  the  eastern  axis  was  crossed,  passes 

*  I  am  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  Mr  Hooker  in  letting  me  have  an  oppor- 
tunity of  studying  tikis  valuable  memoir  while  passing  through  the  press. 

B 


18       Dr  James  Hector  on  the  Physical  Features  of  the 


through  a  country  that  is  on  the  whole  heavily  timbered,  but 
the  quality  of  the  forest  varies  a  good  deal  with  the  soil  and 
elevation.  Thus,  round  Thunder  Bay,  on  Lake  Superior,  the 
ash,  elm,  maple,  and  cedar,  with  a  rich  undergrowth  of  rosa- 
ceous shrubs,  are  met  with,  in  addition  to  the  white  spruce, 
larch,  pines  of  several  species,  birch,  and  poplars  ;  but  on  the 
high  lands  round  Dog  Lake,  elevated  1500  feet  above  the  sea, 
the  forest  consists  almost  entirely  of  the  latter  trees.  In 
descending  to  Rainy  Lake,  the  more  valuable  timber  re-ap- 
pears, wherever  the  soil  is  favourable  to  its  growth,  and  such 
trees  as  Pinus  resinosa,  P.  Strohus,  and  Ciipressus  thyoides, 
sometimes  roach  a  large  size.  From  Rainy  Lake  to  the  Red 
River  Settlement,  the  forest  becomes  more  varied  and  richer 
in  its  character,  comprising  elms,  oaks,  ash,  basswood  {Tilia 
americana),  beech,  and  ironwood  (Ostrya  virginica),  but  still 
with  alarge  admixture  of  Coniforaj.  In  this  district  the  under- 
growth is  very  luxuriant,  many  of  the  slirubs  of  the  Northern 
States  occurring  plentifully.  On  the  borders  of  the  lakes  and 
rivers,  the  Indian  rice  {Zhania  aquatica)  is  abundant,  the 
grain  ofwhich,  alongwith  fish,  forms  the  principal  food  of  tliu 
Salteau  Indians. 

In  proceeding  due  west  from  the  Red  River  Settlement,  the 
Prairie  country  is  at  once  entered  upon,  being  bounded  to  the 
north  by  the  wooded  country,  the  limit  of  which  nearly  fol- 
lows the  isothermal  mean  of  41°  in  a  north-west  direction, 
until  it  reaches  the  109th  meridian  in  Lat.  53°  N.,*  when  it 
sweeps  again  to  the  south-west  to  intersect  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain chain  in  Lat.  51°.  The  country  to  the  north  of  the  49th 
parallel,  and  up  to  the  55th,  which  was  the  region  examined,  is 
thus  boldlymarked  into  two  districts  by  the  presence  or  absence 
of  timber.  A  third  district  must,  however,  be  also  considered, 
forming  a  belt  dividing  the  forests  from  the  true  plains,  and 
which  atone  time  wasitself  forest-land, but  having  been  cleared 
by  the  successive  devastations  of  prairie  fires,  it  new  combines 
the  advantages  of  both,  having  extensive  ranges  of  open  land 
like  the  prairies,  which  possess  the  rich  vegetable  mould,  and 

*  It  is  probable  that  this  isothermal,  as  generally  represented,  does  not 
sweep  enough  to  the  south  after  crossing  the  Ilocky  Mountains  from  the  west, 
when  passing  through  Long.  114°  to  0G°. 


'^ 


Central  Part  vf  British  North  America,  19 

fire  covered  with  tlic  nutritious  grasses  aiul  leguminous  plants 
(•f  the  forest  country. 

The  woodland  country  which  bounds  the  plains  clearly  pos- 
Hosses  the  physiognomy  of  the  sub-arctic  province.  The  most 
prevalent  tree  is  the  Abies  alba,  whioli  only  reaches  any  great 
size  in  river  valleys.  On  the  dry  rising  grounds  grows  the 
Cijjyres  of  the  Canadian  voyageurs  ;  but  under  that  name  they 
include  two  dill'erent  species  of  pines — P.  Banksianay  and  a 
pine  allied  to  the  P.  mops  of  the  United  States,  or  to  the 
P.  contorta  of  the  Pacific  coast.  A  few  of  this  latter  species 
were  seen  near  Fort  Carlton,  after  which  they  were  not  again 
met  with  on  a  due  west  line  until  near  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
south-west  from  Edmonton.  The  most  important  though  not 
the  most  plentiful  tree  of  the  wooded  country  is  the  birch 
(Betulapapyracea),  as  it  is  the  only  hard  wood  which  the 
natives  possess,  andisused  for  making  dog-sleighs,  snow-shoes, 
and  other  necessary  articles.  These  trees,  with  a  few  larches, 
balsam  firs  {A.  balsamea),  red  pines,  poplars  (P.  balsamifcra^ 
and  P.  ti'emuloides),  comprise  the  bulk  of  the  forest  that 
covers  the  country  to  the  north  of  the  Saskatchewan  ;  but  by 
the  sides  of  the  rivers,  which  have  generally  deeply  depressed 
valleys,  there  is  of  course  a  much  greater  variety  in  the  vege- 
tation, owing  to  the  sheltered  situation  and  the  rich  soil. 

The  belt  of  partially  cleared  country  which  lies  to  the  south 
of  the  forest-land,  and  stretches  continuously  from  the  Red 
River  Settlement  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  averages  80  to  100 
miles  in  width,  but  it  expands  very  much  towards  the  west, 
owing  to  the  bend  which  the  southern  border  makes  to  the 
south-west.  In  this  district  the  woods  are  very  scanty,  and 
consist  almost  exclusively  of  the  aspen  poplar,  which  forms 
small  groves  and  artificial-looking  clumps  that  dot  rich  pas- 
ture lands.  Sometimes  a  small  clump  of  spruce  fir  has  been 
left  by  the  fires,  but  this  is  only  in  a  few  rare  localities  ;  at 
least  when  at  any  distance  from  the  limit  of  the  true  forest.  Be- 
tween Carlton  and  Edmonton,  along  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany's trail,  for  a  distance  of  nearly  400  miles,  there  are  not 
more  than  five  or  six  spots  where  any  of  the  Coniferas  have 
been  left.    The  clearing  of  this  country  is  due  to  a  very  simple 

cause.  The  prairie  tribes  of  Indians,  15,000  to  16,000  in  number, 

B  2 


'  tl  'i' 


=1^ 


i^* 


hip: 
If 


20       l)r  Jiiiiiurt  Hector  on  the  PhyHical  Fcaturen  i>/ the 

live  wholly  by  tlio  cliusc  of  the  ))ullalo,  and  prefer,  in  coii- 
seciuencc,  to  i)itch  their  tents  along  the  edge  of  the  woodH,  for 
the  sake  of  shelter,  and  at  the  same  time  to  ))e  near  tlieir  game. 
Either  by  accident,  or  for  the  purpose  of  making  signals,  the 
prairies  round  their  camps  are  generally  burnt  every  few 
years,  and,  as  a  rule,  where  coniferous  trees  are  destroyed, 
they  are  never  replaced  by  the  same  stock ;  but  the  rich 
alkaline  soil  is  at  once  seized  upon  by  the  wafted  seeds  of  the 
aspen  poplar,  to  the  exclusion  of  other  trees. 

It  is  true  that  Rinn'hir  fires  take  place  in  the  thick  wood 
country  and  in  the  for(;Hts  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  ;  but  al- 
though they  do  much  damage,  the  chance  of  their  recurring 
on  the  same  spot  within  a  short  enough  time  completely  to 
remove  the  timber  is  small.  Where  the  poplar  seeds  cannot 
reach  such  burnt  spots,  they  are  usually  crowded  with  the 
gaudy  plants  of  Epilobmm  amjusti/olium,  among  which  the 
young  pine  seedlings  can  gain  a  footing,  so  that  the  forest 
often  reverts  in  such  a  case  to  the  coniferous  type  ;  but  the 
thickets  which  spring  uj),  strangely  enough,  very  seldom  con- 
tain plants  of  Abies  alba,  but  almost  invariably  consist  of 
the  pine  which  I  have  alluded  to  as  allied  to  P.  moj)s. 

The  Saskatchewan  and  other  rivers  of  the  prairies  flow 
through  valleys  rarely  a  mile  in  width,  and  excavated  to  the 
depth  of  200  to  300  feet  below  the  general  level.  The  river 
winds  from  side  to  side  of  this  valley,  successively  rounding 
rich  alluvial  flats,  which  sustain  a  rich  and  very  ditl'erent  kind 
of  vegetation  from  that  of  the  plains  above.  In  such  low 
situations,  stragglers  from  the  eastern  flora  are  found  to  ex- 
tend far  beyond  the  western  limit  of  where  they  continue  to 
grow  on  the  general  surface  of  the  country.  Thus  the  false 
sugar  maple  {Negundo  fraxinifolium)  may  be  found  as  far 
west  as  Long.  108°  in  the  valley  of  the  North  Saskatche- 
wan ;  and  on  an  island  in  the  same  river,  a  short  distance 
above  Fort  Carlton,  the  red  elm  {Ulmus  fulva)  was  observed. 
The  oak  follows  up  the  valley  of  the  Assineboine  River  as  far 
west  as  Long.  100°.  Th^  true  sugar-maple  does  not  pass  be- 
yond the  Red  River,  in  which  longitude  is  also  found  the  wes- 
tern limit  of  the  wild  plum  (Prunus  americana),  beech,  iron- 
wood,  ash,  cedar,  arbor-vitse,  Weymouth  pine,  and  other  more 


r 


I 


Ccntrul  Part  of  British  North  America, 


21 


valuahlo  troofl  of  the  eastern  forest.  Sonic  of  tlicse  wore, 
however,  seen  by  Richardson  in  tlie  wooded  coiintrv  as  far 
north  as  Lat.  54°.  A  few  trees  of  rojmhis  (jramtldcntata  were 
seen  in  the  valley  of  the  South  Saskatclicwan  at  its  elbow, 
altliongh  that  tree  does  not  extend  into  the  lower  part  of  the 
valley  of  lied  River  from  the  Mississippi,  where  it  grows  in 
abundance. 

Within  the  "  fertile  belt"  of  cleared  land  wo  have  the  vege- 
tation on  the  alluvial  flats  of  the  river  valleys,  consisting  of 
Populua  balsa mif era,  which  is  the  largest  tree  in  that  part 
of  the  country,  sometimes  reaching  three  feet  in  diameter, 
with  a  dense  thicket  of  Salix  tongi/oUa,  S.  rostrata,  I'ilmr- 
mcm  edule,  Cratai(jus  coccinea,  Atudanchicr  canadensis,  the 
wood  of  which  is  used  for  making  bows,  and  the  luscious  fruit 
for  mixing  with  pemica?)  ;  Cornus  stolonifcra,  or  '*  red  wil- 
low," the  bark  of  which  the  Indians  smoke  alongwith  tobacco. 
Shepherdia  argcntea  sometimes  forms  the  greater  mass  of  the 
thicket,  and  its  red  juicy  berries  are  the  favourite  food  of 
grisly  bears. 

On  the  prairies  of  this  district,  besides  the  groves  of  the 
Popidus  tremuloid.es,  or  aspen,  there  are  dense  willow  thickets 
surrounding  the  swampy  ground.  In  such  spots  there  is  an 
immense  variety  of  cariccs  ;  and  when,  as  is  often  the  case, 
the  water  is  saline,  saliferous  plants  abound,  and,  as  usual, 
generally  of  species  having  a  wide  range.  On  the  sides  of 
rising  grounds  the  Eloiagnus  argentea  forms  a  low  silvery 
copse,  affording  food  to  large  coveys  of  prairie  grouse.  If  the 
ground  is  high,  or  has  a  light  sandy  soil,  it  is  then  covered  with 
a  close  matting  of  the  Kin-i-kin-ic,  or  smoking  weed,  which 
is  the  Arctostaphylos  Uva-ursi  of  the  Scotch  liills  ;  or  by 
the  long  flabelliform  branches  of  Juniperus  virginiana  var. 
prodrata.  Towards  the  mountains,  large  expanses  of  plain 
are  covered  with  a  low  birch  or  alder  (Bettda  glandulosa  ?), 
six  to  eight  inches  high,  which  in  winter  give  the  appearance 
of  a  heather-covered  moorland  to  these  prairies. 

In  June  and  July,  in  some  localities,  the  prairies  are  covered 
with  brightly-coloured  flowers  of  the  genera  Astragalus, 
Hedysarmn,  Geranium,  Lilium,  and  others,  or  are  completely 
clothed  with  a  dense  low  copse  of  rose  bushes.   As  the  country 


^*te 


22     Dr  Janice  Hector  on  the  Physical  Features  of  the 

towards  the  south  merges  into  opeu  prairie,  the  clumps  of 
copse  and  young  poplars  arc  found  only  nestling  on  northern 
exposures.  The  last  outliers  of  the  woods  to  the  south  form 
"  islands,"  as  they  are  called  in  the  country,  which  make 
a  great  show  from  a  distance,  but  when  approached,  are 
found  by  the  disappointed  traveller  to  consist  merely  of  a 
small  species  of  willow,  that  "s\  ill  yield  neither  firewood  nor 
shelter. 

The  true  arid  district,  which  occupies  most  of  the  country 
along  the  South  Saskatchewan,  and  reaches  as  far  north  as 
Lat.  52°,  acquires  even  very  early  in  the  season  a  dry  parched 
look.  In  the  northern  district,  the  accumulation  of  liumus 
and  the  distribution  of  the  pleistocene  deposits  have  given  rise 
to  a  great  variety  in  the  nature  of  the  soil ;  but  to  the  south, 
the  cretaceous  and  tertiary  strata  almost  everywhere  form 
the  surface,  so  that  the  stiff  clay  soil,  which  is  often  highly 
impregnated  with  sulphates  of  soda  and  lime,  bakes  under  the 
heat  of  the  sun  into  a  hard  and  cracked  surface.  This  must 
be  the  principal  reason  for  the  arid  plains  ranging  to  such  a 
high  latitude,  as  there  is  quite  a  sufficient  quantity  of  mois- 
ture in  the  atmosphere  during  the  summer  months  to  support 
a  more  vigorous  vegetation.  This  is  seen  to  be  the  case  even 
as  far  south  as  Lat.  49°  30'  N.,  where  at  the  Cypres  Hills,  and 
also  on  the  south  sides  of  the  deep  valleys  and  other  exposures 
sheltered  from  the  sun's  rays  in  early  spring,  pines,  spruce- 
firs,  poplars,  and  many  varieties  of  the  northern  type  of 
vegetation,  appear  under  congenial  but  strictly  local  con- 
ditions. In  tlie  arid  country  the  characteristic  plants  are 
the  prickly  prairie  apples  (Opuntia),  and  the  shrub-sage  or 
absinthe  (Artemisia)  ;  and  in  the  trough-like  valleys  that  lie 
east  and  west  far  out  in  the  bare  plains,  these  plants  may 
sometimes  be  seen  in  full  possession  of  the  sunny  slopes  on 
the  north  side,  while  the  opposite  side  of  the  valley  is  clothed 
withgreen  and  arborescent  vegetation;  while  at  the  same  time, 
showing  that  it  is  not  local  springs  that  cause  the  difference, 
the  stream  itself  is  often  dried  up  into  a  chain  of  muddy 
pools.  The  arid  district,  although  there  are  many  fertile  spots 
throughout  its  extent,  can  never  be  of  much  advantage  to  us 


''m 


m 


Central  Pari  of  British  North  America, 


23 


■i 


-'.''■1' 
M. 


as  a  possession.  Even  in  June  and  July,  the  Expedition  ex- 
perienced groat  inconvenience  in  traversing  it,  from  the  want 
of  vvoo'^i,  water,  and  pasture. 

Along  the  eastern  base  of  tlie  Rocky  Mountains  there  is 
much  fine  land  with  very  rich  pasture  ;  but  the  sharp  night 
frosts  which  occur  throughout  the  summer  would  render  the 
raising  of  cereals  very  precarious.  When  close  to  the  moun- 
tains, several  trees  appear  which  are  found  in  greatest  number 
on  the  west  slope  of  the  continent.  Of  these  the  principal  is 
the  "  Prushe"  of  the  voyageurs,  which  is  so  named  by  them 
from  its  general  resemblance  to  the  hemlock  spruce  {Abies 
canadensis).  It  is,  however,  a  very  distinct  tree.  Two  pines 
were"  also  observed  that  were  not  remarked  further  to  the 
eastward,  one  of  which  is  only  slightly  different  from  the 
Finns  monticola  of  Douglas.  The  collections  obtained  at  the 
base  of  the  mountains  are  not  satisfactory,  as,  at  the  time  of 
M.  Bourgeau's  visit,  the  season  was  too  late  for  any  plants  but 
alpines. 

The  valleys  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  occupied  by  forests, 
excepting  in  a  few  localities,  where  there  occur  level  gravelly 
plains  clothed  with  tufts  of  '*  bunch  grass"  (Fcstuca).  The 
forest  consists  principally  of  the  Prushe,  Douglas,  white  and 
black  spruce.  This  mixed  forest,  with  a  very  varied  under- 
growth, extends  to  5000  feet  in  altitude,  when  it  is  succeeded 
by  a  forest  of  Abies  balsamea.  The  tree  that  is  found  highest , 
however,  is  the  Abies  alba  ;  and  at  an  altitude  of  7000  feet 
in  exposed  situations  it  is  quite  dwarfed  in  size,  with  recum- 
bent branches  that  spread  like  thatch  over  the  mountain  sides. 
Tlie  altitude  of  the  alpine  region  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  is 
very  variable,  and  ranges  from  7000  to  9000  feet.  It  is  char- 
acterised by  the  occurrence  of  many  plants  of  identical  species 
with  those  found  in  similar  situations  in  Europe. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  some  of  the  plants  collected  by 
the  \mter  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  chain,  in  Lat.  52°  north, 
at  an  altitude  of  from  7000  to  9000  feet.  They  are  all  from 
one  locality,  near  the  height  of  land  of  a  pass  from  the  South 
to  the  North  branches  of  the  Saskatchewan  River,  and  were 
gathered  in  the  end  of  August  1859 : — 


24      Dr  James  Hector  on  the  Physical  Features  of  the 


M 


1 1 


I'li,' 


m. 


h.m 


^ 


I ,  lis; 


Silene  acaulis,  L. 
Cerastium  alpinunc,  L. 

arvense,  L. 

Stellaria  longipes  Gold. 
Fragaria  virginiana,  Ehr. 
Potentilla  fruticosa,  L. 
——  diversifolia,  Lekm. 
Epilobium  alpinum,  L. 
Saxifraga  bronchialis,  L. 

controversa,  Sternh. 

Dahurica,  Pall. 

Parnassia  firabriata,  Hook. 
Sedura  stenopetalum,  Pursh. 
Youngia  pygraaea,  Ced. 
Seneciotriangularis,  Hook. 
Erigeron  compositum,  Pursh. 
Valeriana  capitata,  (?)  Willd. 
Menziesia  grandiflora,  Hook. 
Cassiope  tetragona,  O.  Don. 
Gentiana  propinqua,  Rich. 


Castelleja  minuta,  Doug. 
Polygonum  viviparum,  L. 
Oxyria  reniformis,  Hook. 
Salix  reticulata,  L.  var.  nana,  Aiidr 

arctica,  R.  Br. 

Allium  Schoonoprasura,  C. 
Ligadenus  chloranthus,  Rich. 
J  uncus  ensifolius,  Wick. 

arcticus,  Wick. 

castaneus,  Sm, 

Luzula  parviflora,  Duv. 

spicata,  L. 

Poa  alpina,  L. 

pratensis,  L. 

Phleum  pratense,  L- 
Bromu8  ciliatus,  L. 
Trisetum  subspicatum,  P.  de  B. 
Festuca  ovina,  L. 

Calamagrostis    (Desyeuxia)    coarc- 
tata,  Torr. 


On  commencing  the  descent  of  the  slope  to  the  west,  the 
change  in  the  nature  of  the  vegetation  is  very  marked,  showing 
a  great  increase  iu  the  amount  of  moisture  which  is  depobited. 
Thus,  high  up  on  the  sides  of  the  valleys,  there  are  dense 
thickets  oiAlnus  viridis,  \7hich  grows  to  the  height  of  six  and 
eight  feet,  with  sturdy  stems  and  ^^ranches.  In  the  valleys, 
the  forest  is  quite  choked  by  an  undergrowth  of  Thuja  occi- 
dentalism Blalionia  Aquifolium,  Panax  horridum,  Pyrus  ame- 
ricana,  Vihuy^num  Opulus,  along  with  species  of  Vaccinium, 
Hibes,  Pubus,  Symphoricai-pos,  and  many  other  plants  not 
observed  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  mountains.  Wherever 
the  valleys  are  rocky,  the  rocks  are  covered  by  a  close  growth 
of  mosses  and  ferns,  both  of  which  groups  are  almost  wholly 
wanting  on  the  east  side,  excepting  those  mosses  that  grow  in 
swamps.  The  forest  is  often  impenetrable,  from  the  inter- 
locking of  the  trunks  of  fallen  trees,  many  of  which  are  three 
and  four  feet  in  diameter.  When  travelling  with  horses,  it 
is  difficult,  where  there  is  no  trail,  to  get  on  faster  than  a  mile 
or  two  a-day  ;  and  to  make  matters  worse,  amidst  all  this 
luxuriance  of  vegetation  there  is  nothing  that  the  poor  ani- 
mals can  eat  excepting  a  scanty  growth  of  Equiseturrit  of 
which  they  are  very  fond,  and  which  grows  on  the  shingle  flais 


■■■;'-■*> 


M- 


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Central  Part  of  British  North  America. 


25 


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.fcift 


f)f  the  mountain  torrents  along  with  a  matting  of  Dryas  and 
Epilobium,  and  otlier  alpine  plants,  the  seeds  of  which  are 
washed  down  every  spring. 

On  descending  the  mountains  as  far  as  the  Kootani  River, 
which  flows  south-east  for  eighty  miles  through  a  wide  valley 
lying  parallel  with  the  direction  of  the  chain,  a  marked 
change  is  again  observed  in  the  nature  of  the  vegetation. 
The  forest  is  free  from  undergrowth,  and  consists  principally 
of  the  Finns  ponderosa,  which  in  its  habit  much  resembles 
the  Scotch  fir,  and  frequently  reaches  the  size  of  four  feet  in 
diameter.  Along  with  it  is  the  Lariw  occidentalism  which  is 
equal  in  girth,  but  exceeds  the  pine  in  height  and  symmetry. 
Amongst  the  noble  forest  which  these  trees  form,  a  rider  can 
gallop  with  ease  in  every  direction,  the  only  underbrush  con- 
sisting of  a  few  scattered  bushes  of  the  red  root  (C^anothns) 
or  of  the  Shepherdia  arcjentea.  On  the  alluvial  flats  by  the 
river,  the  Juniperus  virginiana  was  found  as  far  north  as 
51°  30'  to  occur  as  a  large  tree  25  feet  in  height  and  1  foot 
in  diameter. 

The  surface  of  the  ground,  where  dry  and  gravelly,  is 
covered  with  wiry  tufts  of  *'  bunch  grass,"  and  the  slopes  are 
clothed  with  a  shrubbery  of  cherry  and  service-berry  bushes 
(Amelanchicr) ,  the  fruit  of  which  is  the  principal  food  of  the 
Kootani  Indians.  Westward  from  the  Kootani  Eiver  to  Fort 
Colville,  upon  the  Columbia,  the  country  is  very  rugged,  and 
when  not  confined  in  narrow  valleys  the  forest  generally  forms 
open  pine  glades.  By  the  sides  of  the  streams  and  the  low- 
borders  of  lakes  the  yew  and  arbutus  are  found  to  occur,  and 
in  favourable  spots  the  Thuja  gigantea  acquires  an  enormous 
size — often  ten  or  twelve  feet  in  diameter.  Neverth'^less,  the 
prevailing  physiognomy  of  the  vegetation  in  this  district  is  of 
the  arid  type  ;  and  further  to  the  south,  in  the  Columbian 
desert,  this  character  is  found  to  reach  an  extreme  phase, 
there  being  a  total  absence  of  timber ;  and  the  country,  even 
where  the  surface  is  irregular  and  rocky,  supports  nothing 
but  a  growth  of  dry  tufty  grass,  or  the  worthless  sage  bush 
{Artemisia  tridentifolia).  This  sterility  increases  as  we  ap- 
proach the  Cascade  Range;  but  on  passing  these  mountains  by 
the  narrow  chasm  through  which  the  Columbian  River  escapes 


9 


26       Dr  James  Hector  on  the  Physical  Features  of  the 


i  t !    ■! 


Ivi^i 


IHP' 


i 


to  the  Pacific,  the  change  in  the  character  of  the  vegetation 
is  very  abrupt.  When  saihng  down  that  river  from  the 
Dalles  to  Fort  Vancouver,  in  a  distance  of  forty  miles,  the 
traveller  passes  from  a  desert  flora  to  a  country  clothed  by 
an  evergreen  forest  of  unrivalled  variety  and  vigour.  The 
scenery  is  magnificent,  precipices  of  basaltic  rocks  rising 
f  om  the  water's  edge  tier  above  tier,  to  the  height  of  several 
thousand  feet,  while  in  the  distance  occasional  peeps  are  ob- 
tained of  snow-capped  peaks  10,000  to  12,000  feet  above  the 
sea-level. 

On  the  western  declivity  of  this  mountain  range,  and  on 
the  narrow  strip  of  ctuntry  that  lies  between  it  and  the 
coast,  are  found  the  beautiful  and  stately  species  of  ^6z6«, 
Picea,  and  rimes,  which  have  been  introduced  into  this 
country  from  Oregon  and  \\  ashington  territories  since  the 
time  of  Douglas.  The  collections  of  that  traveller,  and  those 
of  Jeffrey,  have  made  us  familiar  with  the  flora  of  the  forest 
land  along  the  Pacific  coast ;  and  our  knowledge  will  be 
rendered  still  more  complete  by  the  ample  collections  of  Dr 
Lyall,  who  is  at  present  labouring  in  that  country,  attached 
to  the  N.  W.  Boundary-line  Commission. 

I  am  indebted  to  the  kindness  of  Sir  William  Hooker  for 
a  memorandum  which  was  left  in  his  hands  by  M.  Bourgeau, 
stating  his  opinion  regarding  the  fitness  of  the  Saskatchewan 
country  for  agricultural  settlement,  and  a  free  translation  of 
which  I  beg  to  append. 

Memorandum  hy  M.  Bourgeau. 

"  I  submit  the  following  remarks  on  the  advantages  for 
agricultural  settlement  in  Kupert's  Land  and  the  Saskat- 
chewan prairies  of  British  North  America,  having  been 
appointed  by  Sir  William  Hooker  to  accompany  Captain 
Pallister's  Expedition  as  botanist. 

"  I  had  especially  to  collect  the  plants  which  grew  natu- 
rally in  the  country  traversed  by  the  Expedition,  and  also 
their  seeds.  Besides  my  botanical  collection,  Dr  Hooker 
advised  me  to  make  thermometrical  observations  at  the 
various  stations,  and,  above  all  things,  to  take  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  earth  at  certain  depths,  as  well  as  that  of  the 


Central  Part  of  British  North  America. 


r 


^:>?: 


interior  of  forest  trees ;   also  to  notice  the   richness  and 
poverty  of  the  vegetation  of  the  country,  and  the  maladies 
to  which  plants  are  exposed.    In  the  second  letter  and  notes 
addressed  to  Sir  William  Hooker,  which  have  already  been 
published,*  I   have  treated  these  questions   with   all  the 
care  that  was  permitted  to  me  by  observations  taken  in  the 
midst  of  the  harassment  and  fatigue  of  a  long  journey,  but 
it  remains  for  mo  to  call  attention  to  the  advantages  there 
would  be  in  establishing  agricultural  settlements  in  the  vast 
plains  of  Rupert's  Land,  and  particularly  on  the  Saskatchewan 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Fort  Carlton.    This  district  is  much 
more  adapted  to  the  culture  of  staple  crops  of  temperate 
climates — such  as  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  &c. — than  one 
would  have  been  inclined  to  believe  from  its  high  latitude. 
In  effect,  the  few  attempts  at  the  culture  of  cereals  already 
made  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  trading- 
posts,  demonstrate  by  their  success  how  easy  it  would  be  to 
obtain  products  sufficiently  abundant  largely  to  remunerate 
the  efforts  of  the  agriculturists.     There,  in  order  to  put  the 
land  under  cultivation,  it  would  be  necessary  only  to  till 
the  better  portions  of  the  soil.     The  prairies  offer  natural 
pasturage  as  favourable  for  the  maintenance  of  numerous 
herds  as  if  they  had  been  artificially  created.     The  construc- 
tion of  houses  for  habitations  by  the  pioneers  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  country  would  be  easy,  because  in  many 
parts  of  the  country,  independent  of  wood,  one  would  find 
fitting  stones  for  building  purposes  ;  and  in  others  it  would 
be  easy  to  find  clay  for  bricks,  more  particularly  near  Battle 
River.     The  other  parts  most  favourable  for  culture  would 
be  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Fort  Edmonton,  and  also  along 
the  south  side  of  the  North  Saskatchewan.     In  the  latter 
district  extend    rich  and  vast   prairies,  interspersed  with 
woods  and  forests,  and  where  thick  wood  plants  furnish  ex- 
cellent pasturage  for  domestic  animals.     The  vetches  found 
here,  of  which  the  principal  are  Vicia,  Hedysarum,  Lathyrus, 
and  Astragalus,  are  as  fitting  for  the  nourishment  of  cattle 
as  the  clover  of  European  pasturage.     The  abundance  of 
buffalo,  and  the  facility  with  which  the  herds  of  horses  and 

*  Lin.  Soc.  Proceedings,  1869. 


28       Dr  James  Hector  on  the  Physical  Features  of  the 


vm 


A 


VI- 


■It; 


m 


oxen  increase,  demonstrate  that  it  would  be  enough  to 
shelter  animals  in  winter,  and  to  feed  them  in  the  shelters 
with  hay  collected  in  advance,  in  order  to  avoid  the  mortality 
that  would  result  from  cold  and  from  the  attacks  of  wild 
beasts,  and  further  to  permit  the  acclimatisation  of  other 
domestic  farmyard  animals,  such  as  the  sheep  and  pig.  The 
harvest  could  in  general  be  commenced  by  the  end  of  August, 
or  the  first  week  in  September,  which  is  a  season  when  the 
temperature  continues  sufficiently  high  and  rain  is  rare.  In 
the  gardens  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company's  Posts,  and  still 
more  in  those  of  the  different  Missions,  vegetables  of  the 
leguminous  family,  such  as  beans,  peas,  and  French  beans, 
have  been  successfully  cultivated  ;  also  potatoes,  cabbages, 
turnips,  carrots,  rhubarb,  and  currants.  No  fruit-tree  has 
as  yet  been  introduced  ;  but  one  might  perhaps,  under 
favourable  circumstances,  try  nut-trees,  also  apple-trees  be- 
longing to  varieties  that  ripen  early.  Different  species  of 
gooseberries,  with  edible  fruits,  grow  wild  here  ;  also  differ- 
ent kinds  of  Vacciniacete  are  equally  indigenous,  and  have 
pleasant  fruits  that  will  serve  for  the  preparation  of  pre- 
serves and  confectionery.  The  Aronta  ovalis  (AmelancMer 
canadensis  must  be  meant)  is  very  common  in  this  country  ; 
and  its  fruit,  commonly  known  as  the  Poire,  or  service - 
berry,  is  dried  and  eaten  by  the  Indians,  who  collect  it  with 
great  care  ;  and  it  also  serves  for  the  purpose  of  making  ex- 
cellent pudding,  recalling  the  taste  of  dried  currants.  The 
only  difficulty  that  would  oppose  agricultural  settlements, 
is  the  immense  distance  to  traverse  over  countries  devoid  of 
roads,  and  almost  uninhabited.  The  assistance  of  Govern- 
ment, or  of  a  well-organised  company,  would  be  indispens- 
able to  the  colonisation  of  this  country.  It  would  be  im- 
portant that  settlements  should  be  established  in  groups  of 
at  least  fifty  householders,  for  protection  against  the  incur- 
sions of  the  Indians,  who  are,  however,  far  from  being  hos- 
tile to  Europeans.  It  stands  to  reason,  that  the  colonists 
ought  to  be  taken  from  the  north  of  Europe  or  from  moun- 
tain districts,  being  those  accustomed  to  the  climatological 
conditions  and  culture  of  the  soil  most  resembling  this  in- 
teresting country,  to  the  resources  of  which  I  call  attention. 


Central  Part  of  British  North  America. 


29 


The  produce  of  agricultural  settlements  thus  established 
would  yield  subsistence  to  the  Indians,  whose  resources  for 
food,  supplied  only  by  liunting,  tend  to  diminish  every  day. 
The  presence  of  European  settlers  would  form  a  useful 
model  for  this  primitive  people,  who,  notwithstanding  their 
native  apathy,  still  appreciate  the  benefits  of  civilization." 

(Signed)  "  E.  Bourgeau." 

I  may  state,  in  conclusion,  that  the  views  here  expressed 
by  M.  Bourgeau  accord  on  the  whole  with  the  opinion  I 
myself  have  formed  of  the  fertile  portion  of  the  Saskatchewan 
country,  and  which  I  believe  is  also  that  of  the  otlier  mem- 
bers of  the  Expedition. 


On  the  Capahilities  for  Settlement  of  the  Central  Part  of 
British    North  America.       By    James    Hector,   M.D., 

F.G.S.,  &c.* 

The  following  remarks  refer  to  a  portion  of  tlie  British  terri- 
tories to  which  much  public  attention  was  directed  a  few  years 
ago — namely,  the  region  which  extends  from  Lake  Superior 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  lying  immediately  north  of  the  boundary 
line  of  the  United  States,  and  drained  principally  by  the  River 
Saskatchewan. 

As  it  was,  and  indeed — excepting  that  portion  which  falls 
within  British  Columbia — is  still,  under  the  direct  control  of 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  for  the  purpose  of  a  fur-trading 
monopoly,  a  considerable  amount  of  agitation  was  employed  in 
Canada,  and  also  at  home,  in  order  to  have  the  country  I  treat 
of  thrown  open  for  settlement,  and  many  statements  have  gone 
forth  giving  an  exaggerated  view  of  its  worthlessness  on  the 
one  hand,  or  of  its  wonderful  qualities  on  the  other. 

Itisnow,however,  placed  beyonddoubt,  principally  through 
the  labours  of  several  Government  expeditions,  to  one  of  which 
I  had  the  honour  to  be  attached,  that  there  do  exist  within  the 
British  territories  that  I  have  mentioned  extensive  areas,  with 
good  and  varied  soil,  adapted  for  agricultural  colonisation,  but 
which,  from  their  geographical  position,  are  necessarily  subject 

*  Road  before  the  British  Association,  Manchester.  September  10,  1861. 


30     Dr  James  Hector  on  the  Capabiltiies /or  Settlement 


1 ' 


I'ji 


If         '■!:' 


to  all  the  advantages  and  defects  of  a  temperate  continental 
climate.  Thus  the  winter  is  loiig  and  severe,  the  spring  short 
and  uncertain,  and  the  summer  tends  to  scorch  the  vegetation. 

But  yet  in  this  region  the  winter  is  not  more  severe  than 
that  experienced  in  Canad  a ;  and  in  the  western  districts,  which 
are  removed  from  the  influence  of  the  great  lakes,  the  spring- 
commences  almost  a  month  earlier  than  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
Superior,  which  is  five  degrees  of  latitude  further  to  the  south. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  higher  latitude,  combined  with  its 
increased  altitude  above  the  sea-level, reduces  the  eifectof  the 
sun's  heat  in  summer  so  much,  that  many  crops  which  arc 
readily  raised  in  Canada  will  not  meet  with  equal  success  in 
the  Saskatchewan.  All  common  cereals  and  green  crops  have 
been  grown  successfully,  however,  even  though  night  frosts 
are  experienced  throughout  the  entire  summer. 

The  depth  of  the  snow  is  never  excessive,  while  in  the 
richest  tracts  the  natural  pasture  is  so  abundant,  that  horses 
and  cattle  may  be  left  to  obtain  their  own  food  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  winter;  and  with  proper  care  and  manage- 
ment there  is  no  doubt  that,  as  far  as  climate  is  concerned, 
sheep  also  might  be  reared,  were  it  not  for  the  immense  packs 
of  wolves  which  infest  the  country. 

It  is  only  during  the  month  of  March,  when  the  snow  ac- 
quires a  tough  glassy  crust  from  the  heat  of  the  mid-day  sun 
being  each  night  follow^ed  by  hard  frost,  that  stock  would 
require  to  be  housed  and  fed. 

These  remarks  apply,  however,  more  especially  to  what  has 
been  termed  the  "  Fertile  Belt,"  and  the  nature  of  which  I 
w'iil  endeavour  to  explain. 

The  wonderfully  fertile  savannahs  and  valuable  woodlands 
of  the  eastern  United  States  are  succeeded  to  the  west  by  a 
more  or  less  arid  desert,  which  occupies  a  region  on  both  sides 
of  the  Eocky  Mountains,  and  presents  a  barrier  to  the  con- 
tinuous growth  of  settlements  between  the  valley  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  the  rich  states  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  at  present 
only  occupied  by  one  spot  of  civilisation,  the  Mormon  city  at 
the  Great  Salt  Lake. 

Under  such  disadvantageous  physical  conditions,  it  is  not 
likely  that  any  line  of  route  for  rapid  or  heavy  transport  across 


of  the  Central  Part  of  British  North  America.        31 


■J 


I 


this  desert  will  be  remunerative,  waile  its  construction,  in  the 
present  disturbed  state  of  American  politics,  maybe  indefinitely 
delayed.  Nevertheless,  during  the  last  seven  years,  oursharp- 
witted  and  prompt-acting  cousins  have  been  spending  much 
money  in  having  every  possible  route  thoroughly  explored  and 
surveyed;  and  were  their  domestic  troubles  over,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  they  would  revert  to  their  attempts  tobind  together 
their  eastern  and  western  provinces. 

It  is  therefore  highly  satisfactory  for  us,  as  British  subjects, 
to  know  that  the  arid  region  extends  but  a  short  way  to  the 
north  of  the  49th  parallel  of  latitude,  which  is  the  position  of 
the  boundary  line,  and  that  even  the  small  area  of  desert 
within  our  territories  derives  its  character  more  from  the 
nature  of  the  soil  than  from  the  general  climatic  conditions. 

The  British  portion  of  the  arid  country  is  a  triangular 
region,  its  apex  reaching  to  the  52d  parallel,  while  its  base, 
applied  along  the  49th,  extends  between  Long.  100°  and  114° 
W.  It  contains,  however,  many  varieties  of  land,  and  some 
limited  areas  that  are  really  even  good;  but,  on  the  whole,  it 
must  be  described  as  deficient  in  wood,  water,  and  grass. 

liound  the  northern  border  of  this  arid  district  sv/eeps  the 
"  Fertile  Belt"  of  country  which  I  before  mentioned.  It  is 
nothing  more  than  the  ill-defined  boundary  of  the  bald  plains 
from  the  gloomy  woodlands  of  the  circum-arctic  forests.  As 
it  forms  the  favourite  camping  grounds  of  the  Indian  tribes, 
the  habit  which  these  savages  have  of  burning  the  vegetation 
has  gradually  improved  this  country  for  the  purposes  of  settle- 
ment, by  clearing  off  the  heavy  timber,  to  remove  which  is 
always  the  first  and  most  arduous  labour  of  the  colonist.  The 
"  Fertile  Belt,"  which  thus  possesses  all  the  good  qualities  of 
rich  soil  and  an  abundant  growth  of  the  nutritious  leguminous 
plants  of  a  woodland  country,  but  associated  with  open  ex- 
panses ready  for  the  plough,  or  for  depasturage,  stretches  from 
the  wooded  country  at  the  south  end  of  Lake  Winipeg  in  a 
north-west  direction  continuously  to  the  Kocky  Mountains,  so 
that  the  westward  progress  of  settlement  wnll  not  meet  with 
the  same  obstacle  that  checks  it  within  the  United  States. 

We  thus  perceive  that  in  some  respects  the  Saskatchewan 
country  compares  favourably  with  Canada;  but  we  must  not 


':'!! 
m 


I 


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n  f 


mi  < 


32    Dr  Jainos  Hector  ow  the  Capabilities  for  Settlement 

forget  that  the  valuable  tiiiilier  trees,  which  are  such  a  great 
source  of  wealth  to  that  province,  totally  disappear  an  we  i)ro- 
ceed  to  the  west,  only  very  few  of  them  ever  reaching  the 
longitude  of  Lake  Winipeg.  Beyond  that,  in  the  northern 
thick  woods,  the  coarse  and  worthless  white  spruce,  with  a  few 
Kinall  birches,  poplars,  and  willows,  compose  the  forest  growth, 
while  in  the  "  Fertile  Belt"  almost  the  only  tree  is  the  aspen 
poplar,  which  forms  very  artificial-looking  groves  and  clumps, 
that  add  greatly  to  the  beauty  of  the  scenery,  but  are  useless 
beyond  giving  shelter  and  yielding  a  very  inferior  quality  of 
firewood. 

With  all  its  disadvantages,  the  Saskatchewan  country  offers 
a  most  desirable  field  to  the  settler  who  is  deficient  in  capital, 
and  who  has  no  desires  beyond  the  easy  life  and  moderate 
gains  of  simple  agricultural  occupations ;  and  it  is  only  the 
difficulty  of  access  to  it  that,  for  the  present  at  all  events,  pre- 
vents its  immediate  occupation. 

Three  routes  are  at  present  in  use  by  which  the  country  is 
entered.  One  is  from  Hudson  Bay,  by  a  broken  land  and 
water  carriage,  rough  and  cumbrous  in  its  nature,  but  which 
has  hitherto  been  the  one  principally  used  by  the  Fur  Com- 
pany. Even  they,  however,  have  almost  abandoned  it  now 
in  favour  of  the  third  route  I  shall  mention. 

The  second  route  is  from  Lake  Superior  to  Lake  Winipeg, 
and  also  involves  many  changes  from  water  carriage  to  land 
transport,  and  never  could  be  used  for  the  introduction  of  live 
stock  or  the  conveyance  of  heavy  goods.  The  only  advantage 
which  either  of  these  routes  could  possess  for  us  is  from  their 
both  being  within  British  territory. 

The  third  route,  which  is  undoubtedly  the  natural  line  of  in- 
gress to  the  country,  but,  unfortunately  for  us,  passes  through 
American  territory,  is  up  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  Eiver 
to  the  Red  River  Settlement  by  way  of  St  Paul's,  Crow 
Wing,  and  across  the  low  water-shed  which  there  divides 
the  waters  of  the  Mississippi  from  those  flowing  to  Hudson 
Bay. 

A  large  portion  of  the  rich  fertile  plains  of  Red  River 
lie  to  the  south  of  the  boundary  line,  and  are  already  being 
rapidly  occupied  by   American   settlers.       An  American 


of  the  Central  Part  of  British  North  America.        33 


steamer  now  plies  on  that  river  for  a  few  trips  each  season, 
and  a  railway  is  projected,  and  the  line  partly  surveyed,  to 
conneet  8t  Paul's  with  Paulina.,  where  there  is  a  new  town 
situated  on  the  frontier.  This  route,  even  at  present,  is  ex- 
tremely convenient  and  easy  for  the  emigrant,  as  it  passes 
through  prairie  country,  so  that  ho  incurs  no  expense  for 
the  food  of  his  animals  when  travelling.  There  can  he  little 
doubt,  that  if  a  railway  is  once  constructed  by  this  route,  it 
will  l)ecomo  a  permanent,  and  doul)tles8  the  favourite,  line 
of  communication,  and  against  it  no  other  will  be  able  to 
compete  successfully. 

If  there  were  a  prospect  of  the  western  prairies  being- 
soon  occupied  by  a  producing  population,  it  might  in  tluit 
case  bo  remunerative  to  have  a  lino  of  railway  constructed 
entirely  within  the  British  territory,  that  would  have  for  its 
object  the  connection  of  Canada  with  our  new  colonies  on 
the  Pacific  Coast ;  but  tliis  would  justly  rank  as  a  great 
national  enterprise,  in  value  much  beyond  the  more  western 
extension  of  our  Canadian  provinces. 

From  the  large  and  flourishing  agricultural  settlement  of 
whites  and  half-breeds  at  Red  River,  the  population  of  which 
is  now  about  8000  souls,  such  a  line  of  railway  might  pass 
westward  through  the  "  Fertile  Belt"  without  encountering 
any  serious  engineering  difficulties.  It  has  been  frequently 
stated  that  in  the  Prairie  country  nothing  would  be  required 
but  the  mere  laying  of  the  rails ;  but  this  is  a  total  misconcep- 
tion of  the  physical  features  of  the  region.  The  prairies  are 
very  rarely  level,  except  over  small  areas.  They  have  undula- 
tions that  often  swell  to  the  height  of  several  hundred  feet,  or 
for  miles  the  traveller  winds  among  abrupt  conical  eminences ; 
and  it  is  only  the  general  absence  of  timber,  and  the  same- 
ness of  the  scenery,  that  deceive  the  eye,  and  give  the  appear- 
ance of  flatness.  IMoreover,  throughout  the  greater  part  of 
the  Prairie  country,  not  only  all  the  large  rivers,  but  even 
small  and  insignificant  streams,  flow  in  valleys,  with  steep 
sides,  deeply  depressed  below  the  general  level ;  and  these 
valleys  would  require  the  construction  of  bridges,  and  often 
in  districts  far  distant  from  a  supply  of  any  proper  building 
materials.     Nevertheless,  I  believe  I  can  safely  state,  that 

c 


i 


I  ; 


34     Dr  James  Hector  on  the  Ca}mhil  Hies  for  Settlement 

in  i)roportion  to  the  extent  of  mileage,  small  engineering 
oxpenses  would  be  incurred  until  the  llocky  Mountains  are 
reached. 

We  now  know  that  tliis  chain  docs  not  present  any  bar  to 
the  construction  of  a  railway,  as  there  are  several  passes  which 
will  admitof  easy  gradients  through  valleys  so  wide  as  to  afford 
great  variety  in  the  choice  of  ground  for  locating  the  line. 

Tlie  mountains  ])ropor  are  not  more  than  50  to  GO  miles 
broad  in  the  latitude  that  would  bo  most  probably  chosen  for 
tliG  line  of  route,  namely  between  50"  and  52",  when,  on  cross- 
ing them  to  tlie  west,  the  gold-bearing  valleys  of  British 
Columbia  are  reached.  Indeed,  within  the  last  few  weeks,  I 
have  received  letters  from  tlie  Saskatcliewan.statingthat  gold 
has  been  discovered  in  the  bed  of  that  river  at  the  Rocky 
Mountain  House,  whicli  is  40  miles  to  the  east  of  the  moun- 
tains, and  quite  in  the  plain  country.  Two  hundred  miles 
further  down  that  river  I  have  seen  a  few  specimens  of  gold 
washed  out,  but  I  doubt  much  if  it  will  ever  be  worked  with 
profit  on  the  east  side  of  the  iiocky  ]\[ountains  within  the 
British  territories,  as  there  is  no  trace  on  that  side  of  the  axis 
of  the  ancient  rocks  from  which  it  must  have  been  derived. 

In  the  rugged  country  that  lies  between  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains and  the  Pacific  Coast,  I  have  no  doubt  that  all  the  val- 
leys are  filled  with  rich  auriferous  deposits,  and  every  few 
months  accounts  arrive  of  "  diggings"  discovered  in  fresh 
localities.  The  most  recent  of  them  was  in  a  letter  from 
Lieut.  Wilson,  who  is  attached  to  the  Commission  at  pre- 
sent engaged  in  surveying  the  boundary  line  from  the 
Pacific  Coast  to  the  mountains,  and  who  mentions  that  a 
rush  has  taken  place  to  -x  point  on  the  Kootani  River. 

In  carrying  a  line  of  railway  throagh  this  region  of 
British  Columbia,  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome  by  the 
engineer  are  very  great.  The  surface  of  the  country  is  bro- 
ken by  low  mountain  chains  that  run  parallel  with  the  coast, 
and  the  narrow  valleys  by  which  the  rivers  break  through 
these  are  rugged  in  the  extreme,  but  to  develop  the  mineral 
wealth  of  this  country  will  in  any  case  require  the  construc- 
tion of  roads,  and  would  aflbrd  more  inducement  to  the  laying 
out  of  money  on  this  than  on  any  other  part  of  the  route. 


of  the  Central  Part  of  British  North  America.        35 

TJio  rusli  of  (ligp^ors  iiitu  tlio  lunv  country  will  ousiiro  for 
it  uii  active  though  temporary  scttloinoiit ;  hut  those  luiiieral 


products  which  it 


(I  wliich 


ily  ho 


ilied 


possesses, 

hy  steady  energy  and  the  e]u|»ltiynient  of  capital,  will  retain  a 
considerahlo  pernument  poi»ulation,  and  give  that  solidity  of 
wealth  which  alone  would  warrant  the  construction  of  a  lino 
of  railway  through  a  difUcult  and  otherwise  iniproductivo 
country.  Throughout  the  Saskatchewan  country  there  aro 
deposits  of  coal,  which,  although  not  to  he  comi>ared  in  ([uality 
with  that  we  arc  familiar  with  in  this  country,  are  yet  of 
considerahlo  value.  Coal  of  a  similar  geological  fovmation, 
hut  of  somewhat  hotter  quality,  also  occurs  on  Vancouver's 
Island  and  the  ojjposite  mainland,  near  the  mouth  of  Fraser 
Iviver ;  and  at  the  former  locality  it  is  worked,  and  finds  a 
market  as  ordinary  fuel,  for  the  manufacture  of  gas,  and,  ahovo 
all  in  importance  to  us,  for  the  supply  of  our  steam  navy. 
Tt  answers  well  for  the  generation  of  steam  ;  and  the  occur- 
rence of  this  coal  on  Vancouver's  Island,  which  possesses 
magnificent  harbourage,  renders  that  colony  a  valuable  link 
in  a  chain  of  communication  with  Chiiip  and  the  East  Indies, 
by  way  of  a  route  across  the  North  iVmerican  continent. 


■  *     / 


I 


i 


* 


